Monday, September 24, 2007
Friday, September 14, 2007
Hopmachham: An Example of Endangered Kiranti Culture
1. Introduction
Kiranti community has rich cultural rituals. Some are well preserved from the earliest time while some others are dying and some are already dead. The community stores a vast number of chham 'songs' i.e. Rungpuwachham (extinct), Hakparechham, Yari/hiyo/hiyarichham (extinct), Saima/sahimachham (extinct), Sakelachham, Dolokupmachham, Risiya/risiwa, Hopachham which are sung for different purposes on specific occasions. This paper focuses on a endangered melody known as Hopmachham which is extinct in several other Kiranti languages e.g. Bantawa, Chamling, Chintang. Hopmachham is a song which is sung by members of the Puma Rai community. This song narrates the origin and development of the earth and man. To prepare this paper, audio-video data of the Chintang Puma Documentation Project has been used. The data are from both the ritual texts as well as from everday conversation, and it should be noted that the language of a ritual text and that of an everyday conversation differ.
Hopmachham is a great song based on Kiranti scriptural music. Etymologically, it is made up of two words hopma 'drink' and chham 'song': a drinking song or more accurately a song that makes you drunk with its charm. In other words, listening to this song one is drugged and enchanted with its magical properties. In order to sing this song, the knowledge of Kiranti oral tradition (mundum) is necessary. According to the Kiranti belief, not anybody can sing the song even if he knows it; only the person who has gained the knowledge to sing it in his dream and has not learned it, can sing it.
a)
asemʌŋ nawaiŋkʌŋ suntumiŋkʌŋ hopmacham
yesterday ancestors -DOWN.ABLT ancestors -DOWN.ABLT ritual.song
mʌmuatata nawaci suntumci
3pS/A- do -PST - bring -PST ancestors -ns ancestors -3nsP
[The (ritual song) Hopmacham been handed down by our elders since the early times of the ancestors.] (hopmacham_01.002)
b)
koina senmoŋi sencii tokma dotku rʌchʌ
CONN dream -DOWN.LOC dream -DOWN.LOC get–INF OBL-NMLZ MIR
[But, this one has to receive in one's dreams.] (hopmacham_01.003)
2. Starting of the Hopmachham
It is widely believed that hopmachham is a marvelous song. When sung appropriately it could bring rain, light fire, dry green trees, give life to dead trees, attract animals' attention and force them to gather, make one cry, dance or laugh, and make plants and trees obey. For example in the olden days a Hopmachham singer could make trees tie their tops together and again free them. But these days, such a singer who could use the song for such miraculous events has not been found yet. It is not that the song has lost its magical properties but there are no genuine singers. Hopmachham is a difficult song to sing in the sense that if the singer is out of tune, melody, wording and or timing, he will be instantly in trouble –he might even die. This might be the reason that now-a-says people do not opt for singing this song. When I asked one of the singers Man Bahadur Rai (70) to sing the song, he refused to sing it. Right at the beginning of the song, the singer begs for power with the goddesses and gods of that particular area or region. He/she introduced him whether s/he has learned the song or gained its knowledge in his dream. Then, describes the god and/or goddesses and their power, and requests, praises and flatters them not to give any trouble while the hopmachham is being sung.
c)
sapten hoŋmo metloŋ hoŋmo kabo kakhukchalam
village goddess-VOC place goddess-VOC 2sPOSS 2sPOSS prayer-way
(village goddess, great goddess, through your power,) (hopmacham_01.009)
d)
apturoŋ tuwaroŋ supsʌŋmi rahaŋmi kabo kakhukchalam
spirit.of.shaman spirit.of.shaman priest healer 2sPOSS 2sPOSS prayer-way
(and compassion, I am your priest, through your power) (hopmacham_01.009)
e)
sibilu phʌkleka ŋae rʌŋpumi ŋa champumi ŋa boktoŋmi ŋa selekmi ŋa
a_protoclan plank 1s-EMPH sayer 1s singer 1s shaman 1s selfmade.shaman 1s
(I am a gifted shaman (who can sing), I am an ordinary shaman,) (hopmacham_01.014)
f)
kabo kakhukchalam hopmacham muŋapaa
2sPOSS 2sPOSS prayer - way a.cultural.great.song do - 1s -NMLZ –ERG
(through worshiping you, I am doing the hopmachham) (hopmacham_01.016)
g)
kabo kanʌŋchinma menben
2sPOSS 2sPOSS jealousy NEG- come.level
(Please do not be jealous!) (hopmacham_01.020)
3. The ways of singing the Hopmachham
Hopmachham can be sung in two ways ,viz. as monologue or duet. In a monologuous or “single” singing, the singer recounts the story of God Paruhang and the Goddess Sumnima. Therefore we can say that hopmachham is a kind of hymn sung by Kirantis. This kind of song addresses the history of creation as well as the deeds of Paruhang, the first man, and Sumnima, the first woman, which are today knows as Kiranti rituals. Singing hopmachham, the singer tells the history of origin from pre-historical age up to the present times. Naturally, it takes many days to complete it. General living styles can also be explained by these types of songs. People used to sing single hopmachham at work, on their way back from work and in the evening at home before sleeping time. But, these days, people rarely sing it, and if they do, they sing it only to explain the historical origin and as a prayer to Gods and Goddess.
Hopmachham can be sung as duet. When it is sung as a duet, people make a bet, and the loser has to obey the winner e.g. the loser has to pay certain amount of money to the winner, or he has to work for the winner for certain days. Kiranti myths narrate the events when ancient Kiranti kings used to conduct the hopmachham competition in which the loser was to be sent into exile. A myth tells the story of a shaman and a witch who were on the hopmachham competition. The witch lost in that competition. Therefore, people still believe in the power of shamans to have treatment against witchcraft. As time passed, hopmachham as duet was limited only to the Phagu songs and Basawa (a wedding custom in which one person asks and the other answers on the wedding day at the bride's home). But these days, this custom does not follow the hopmachham language. Today Phagu songs and Basawa are mostly performed in everday Puma language and also in Nepali.
4. Hopmachham and other cultures
Hopmachham can be sung on many occasions of Kiranti culture since it is believed to be the origin of all Kiranti rituals. A few existing rituals in Puma Rai community, which are related to hopmachham, are as follows:-
a) Hopmachham and Phagu dance (Sakewa dance)
In the past, Kiranti people used to sing hopmacham in Sakewa (Puma Rai call it Phagu) both in the form of single and duet. Some Puma singers are still found who sing single hopmachham in Phagu dance (CPDP 2006). The singer has sung it relating to the Phagu ritual. Especially, it also raises the head soul of all the singers, dancers and others.
b) Hopmachham and Basawa in marriage ceromony
Basawa is a wedding ritual celebrated at the bride's place, where the bride-side raises many questions to the bridegroom-side. The conversation in the song form is related to the forthcoming days of the bride at her husband's home. In the past days, Kiranti people used to speak Basawa in hopmachham. But these days, they conduct the Basawa in general Kiranti language as well in Nepali. People even believe that Basawa is originated from duet hopmachham, as it carries the main theme of hompachham, though they may perform in ordinary language. The audio-video recordings of hopmachham_02 done (CPDP 2006) arre related to the short description of Basawa and hopmachham rituals. The hopmachham sung in Basawa is also known as yari/hiyari/hiyochham.
c) Hopmachham and shamanic rites
The shamanic language in Kiranti language is called Risiwa/risiya. The hopmachham language and shamanic language are known as ritual languages. The shamanic work is a specific work at a specific place and time. Some of the ritual texts are same in hopmachham and shamanic languages. For example, the prayer to the Gods and Goddesses of the ridge and the area before the beginning of both rituals, the ritual journey (through enumeration of place names, see Allen 1974, Gaenszle 1994, 1999) from the place of singer through the Khokwalung/ Manalung up to Bunglukhora, BechhuDada. Most of the words of these two rituals are same. To perform these two rituals, the singer must gain the knowledge in his dream which can happen only by the blessing of the God. According to Kiranti belief, hopmachham is more powerful than the general shamanic spells and magic. Therefore not all shamans can sing hopmachham equally well. Most Kiranti shamans of the new generation do not sing hopmachham at all.
d) Hopmachham and Mangen
Mangen is a ritual which is done in mundum song. People worship the goddesses of grain and wealth in this worshipping. In Mangen, the grain refers only to the different varieties of millet planted in Kiranti areas. Puma Rais do this work twice in a year, during ubhauli (the rising season) as planting period and udhauli (the falling season) as harvesting period. This is a ritual journey and head raising (sir uthaune in Nepali) prayer of mongchhama (the goddess of the grain and wealth). Hopmachham and mangen have some similarities in many ways, i.e. to do both of these, the doer or singer must gain the knowledge in his dreams, these both are mundum songs, both of these are endangered in Kiranti Rai community, both of these are verbal as well as ritual journeys. There are some differences between these two cultures as well. There are different pre-historical and pre-cultural backgrounds, i.e. a chicken must be sacrificed in Mangen but not in Hopmachham, the ritual journey of Mangen starts from the worshipping place to the Terai in the south and up to Salpa pond in the North through the existing human path but the existing river is the main path in Hopmachham and the singer walks from the place of singing to Khokwalung and Manalung in the south up to the Bechhudada and Bunglukhora in the North. There is a time restriction to do the Mangen but not so much in doing Hopmachham. Hopmachham can be sung in many ways not only as the head raising of soul but Mangen is sung as only the head raising of the Goddess of grains.
e) Hopmachham and other Kiranti Rai songs
There are many ritual, cultural and folk songs in Kiranti Rai communities. Most of them are already dead, some of them are endangered and are moribund. Almost all of them are related to Hopmachham. Risiwa or Risiya is the shamanic song sung by shaman in many ritual works. The language of Risiwa and Hopmachham is same. Some of the description in these songs tend to similarity. Rungpuwachham is as a branch of hopmachham, in which the singer describes the historical and cultural events as well the description of the bravery of the forefathers. Rungpuwachham is almost extinct these days. Yari/hiyari/hiyochham is sung during the wedding ceremony as a form of Basawa which is described above. Saimachham is a song of birth, life and living and it is sung at work and at the waterpoint etc. speciially by women. But hopmachham singers used to sing this song also as hopmachham. Saimachham is also rarely found. Sakelachham (Phaguchham in Puma Rai) is a great existing song in Kiranti Rai community. Sakewachham is sung during the Sakewa dance in Ubhauli and Udhauli. The sakewa songs were used to sung as a form of Hopmachham. In these days, this song is sung in Nepali language as well as in other Kiranti Rai languages. Similarly, Hakparechham can also be taken as a folk song in Kirant Rai community. This song can be sung anywhere and by anybody and in anytime. These all kinds of Kirant Rai songs are related in many ways to Hopmachham as Hompachham is believed to be the origin of all kinds of songs.
5. Some special Features of Hopmachham
Special features of Hopamachham are given below in points.
• It is learnt in dream
• Only a few singers are left in Puma Rai community.
• It is a verbal and ritual journey
• Hopmachham and mundum are strongly related
• It explains the origin or creation of the world
• Queries and answers between two parties (duet)
• It is sung both in pleasure and tragedy
• It is sung at work and on cultural rites
• It's the origin of many kinds of Kiranti songs
• It's a historical oral document
• It is related to the real life and living style
• It represents endangered culture
6. Summary and Conclusion
Hopmachham is one of the highly endangered rituals that belong to the Rai Kiranti community. It is still found in the Puma Rai community in southern Khotang district. Most singers are above 50 and they all are shamans. It is a great and ancient, rhythmic account of Kiranti culture still little studied. It is known as the great repository of language, history and culture. Only shamans can be singers who have gained the knowledge of singing the hopmachham. Other people are not allowed to sing this song in general. Vocabularies and the language of Hopmachham are similar to the Kiranti mundum which shows that Hopmachham is the most important branch of mundum philosophy and practice. There are many ways and occasions to sing hopmachham. It can be sung as the description of the origin, as the romantic songs, as cultural rites and many more. It can be sung either in single or duet form, but these days only single form is found.
The study shows that hopmachham might die soon as the singers are over 50 and the new generation does not learn it. The changing modern lifestyle is replacing many old valuable cultures. Therefore, it is necessary to do something to preserve such cultures. CPDP a joint programme of University of Leipzig, Germany and Tribhuvan University of Nepal is doing an appreciable work documenting two endangered Kiranti languages and cultures, Puma and Chintang. The documentation is done through audio-video recordings to be put on to the archive, which will preserve the documented facts for a long. However, CPDP has been able to record only short clips of Hopmachham from seven different shamans found in Puma Rai community. There is a need to record Hopmachham completely which might take days. It is a great research topic for anthropologists and sociologists, and in case of lack of a proper documentation this valuable asset of mankind will be lost.
References
Allen, Nicholas J. 1978. Sewala Puja Bintila Puja notes on Thulung Ritual Language. Kailash 6 (4): 237-256. CNAS. Kathmandu.
Allen, Nicholas J. 1974. "The ritual journey: a pattern underlying certain Nepalese rituals." in Contributions to the Anthropology of Nepal. Edited by C. v. Fürer-Haimendorf, pp. 6-22. Warminster: Aris and Philipps.
Fox, J.J. (ed). 1988. To Speak in Pairs: Essays on the Ritual Languages of Eastern Indonesia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Gaenszle, Martin. 2002. Ancestral Voices: Oral Ritual Texts and their Social Contexts among the Mewahang Rai in East Nepal. Münster, Hamburg, London: LIT Verlag.
Gaenszle, Martin. 1999. "Travelling up and travelling down: the vertical dimension in Mewahang Rai ritual texts," in Himalayan space: cultural horizons and practices. Edited by B. Bickel, Martin Gaenszle. Zurich: Ethnological Museum of the University of Zurich.
Gaenszle, Martin. 1994. "Journey to the origin: a root metaphor in a Mewahang Rai healing ritual," in The anthropology of Nepal: peoples, problems, processes. Edited by M. A. (ed.), pp. 256-268. Kathmandu: Mandala Book Point.
Gaenszle, Martin. 1991. Verwandtschaft und Mythologie bei den Mewahang Rai in Ostnepal. Eine ethnographische Studie zum Problem der 'ethnischen Identität'. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag Wiesbaden
Gaenszle, Martin. 1999. The making of good ancestors: separation, transformation and exchange in Mewahang Rai funerary rites. In: Elisabeth Schömbucher & Claus Peter Zoller (ed.), Ways of dying: death and its meanings in South Asia. New Delhi: Manohar.
Gaenszle, Martin. 2000. Origins and migrations: kinship, mythology and ethnic identity among the Mewahang Rai of East Nepal. Kathmandu: Mandala Book Point & The Mountain Institute
Höfer, András. 1999. "Nomen est numen: preliminary notes on the verbal journey in some Western Tamang oral ritual texts," in Himalayan space: cultural horizons and practices. Edited by B. B. M. Gaenszle, pp. 205-244. Zürich: Völkerkundemuseum der Universität Zürich.
Vartaman, 2003, Vol. 17, “Kirat Rai Jatiko Paramparagat Git”, Nipsung, Kirant Rai Yayokkha, Kathmandu, Nepal
Rai, Jiten. 2006, Paruhang bulletin Published by Kirat Rai Students Association, Kirtipur, Nepal
Kiranti community has rich cultural rituals. Some are well preserved from the earliest time while some others are dying and some are already dead. The community stores a vast number of chham 'songs' i.e. Rungpuwachham (extinct), Hakparechham, Yari/hiyo/hiyarichham (extinct), Saima/sahimachham (extinct), Sakelachham, Dolokupmachham, Risiya/risiwa, Hopachham which are sung for different purposes on specific occasions. This paper focuses on a endangered melody known as Hopmachham which is extinct in several other Kiranti languages e.g. Bantawa, Chamling, Chintang. Hopmachham is a song which is sung by members of the Puma Rai community. This song narrates the origin and development of the earth and man. To prepare this paper, audio-video data of the Chintang Puma Documentation Project has been used. The data are from both the ritual texts as well as from everday conversation, and it should be noted that the language of a ritual text and that of an everyday conversation differ.
Hopmachham is a great song based on Kiranti scriptural music. Etymologically, it is made up of two words hopma 'drink' and chham 'song': a drinking song or more accurately a song that makes you drunk with its charm. In other words, listening to this song one is drugged and enchanted with its magical properties. In order to sing this song, the knowledge of Kiranti oral tradition (mundum) is necessary. According to the Kiranti belief, not anybody can sing the song even if he knows it; only the person who has gained the knowledge to sing it in his dream and has not learned it, can sing it.
a)
asemʌŋ nawaiŋkʌŋ suntumiŋkʌŋ hopmacham
yesterday ancestors -DOWN.ABLT ancestors -DOWN.ABLT ritual.song
mʌmuatata nawaci suntumci
3pS/A- do -PST - bring -PST ancestors -ns ancestors -3nsP
[The (ritual song) Hopmacham been handed down by our elders since the early times of the ancestors.] (hopmacham_01.002)
b)
koina senmoŋi sencii tokma dotku rʌchʌ
CONN dream -DOWN.LOC dream -DOWN.LOC get–INF OBL-NMLZ MIR
[But, this one has to receive in one's dreams.] (hopmacham_01.003)
2. Starting of the Hopmachham
It is widely believed that hopmachham is a marvelous song. When sung appropriately it could bring rain, light fire, dry green trees, give life to dead trees, attract animals' attention and force them to gather, make one cry, dance or laugh, and make plants and trees obey. For example in the olden days a Hopmachham singer could make trees tie their tops together and again free them. But these days, such a singer who could use the song for such miraculous events has not been found yet. It is not that the song has lost its magical properties but there are no genuine singers. Hopmachham is a difficult song to sing in the sense that if the singer is out of tune, melody, wording and or timing, he will be instantly in trouble –he might even die. This might be the reason that now-a-says people do not opt for singing this song. When I asked one of the singers Man Bahadur Rai (70) to sing the song, he refused to sing it. Right at the beginning of the song, the singer begs for power with the goddesses and gods of that particular area or region. He/she introduced him whether s/he has learned the song or gained its knowledge in his dream. Then, describes the god and/or goddesses and their power, and requests, praises and flatters them not to give any trouble while the hopmachham is being sung.
c)
sapten hoŋmo metloŋ hoŋmo kabo kakhukchalam
village goddess-VOC place goddess-VOC 2sPOSS 2sPOSS prayer-way
(village goddess, great goddess, through your power,) (hopmacham_01.009)
d)
apturoŋ tuwaroŋ supsʌŋmi rahaŋmi kabo kakhukchalam
spirit.of.shaman spirit.of.shaman priest healer 2sPOSS 2sPOSS prayer-way
(and compassion, I am your priest, through your power) (hopmacham_01.009)
e)
sibilu phʌkleka ŋae rʌŋpumi ŋa champumi ŋa boktoŋmi ŋa selekmi ŋa
a_protoclan plank 1s-EMPH sayer 1s singer 1s shaman 1s selfmade.shaman 1s
(I am a gifted shaman (who can sing), I am an ordinary shaman,) (hopmacham_01.014)
f)
kabo kakhukchalam hopmacham muŋapaa
2sPOSS 2sPOSS prayer - way a.cultural.great.song do - 1s -NMLZ –ERG
(through worshiping you, I am doing the hopmachham) (hopmacham_01.016)
g)
kabo kanʌŋchinma menben
2sPOSS 2sPOSS jealousy NEG- come.level
(Please do not be jealous!) (hopmacham_01.020)
3. The ways of singing the Hopmachham
Hopmachham can be sung in two ways ,viz. as monologue or duet. In a monologuous or “single” singing, the singer recounts the story of God Paruhang and the Goddess Sumnima. Therefore we can say that hopmachham is a kind of hymn sung by Kirantis. This kind of song addresses the history of creation as well as the deeds of Paruhang, the first man, and Sumnima, the first woman, which are today knows as Kiranti rituals. Singing hopmachham, the singer tells the history of origin from pre-historical age up to the present times. Naturally, it takes many days to complete it. General living styles can also be explained by these types of songs. People used to sing single hopmachham at work, on their way back from work and in the evening at home before sleeping time. But, these days, people rarely sing it, and if they do, they sing it only to explain the historical origin and as a prayer to Gods and Goddess.
Hopmachham can be sung as duet. When it is sung as a duet, people make a bet, and the loser has to obey the winner e.g. the loser has to pay certain amount of money to the winner, or he has to work for the winner for certain days. Kiranti myths narrate the events when ancient Kiranti kings used to conduct the hopmachham competition in which the loser was to be sent into exile. A myth tells the story of a shaman and a witch who were on the hopmachham competition. The witch lost in that competition. Therefore, people still believe in the power of shamans to have treatment against witchcraft. As time passed, hopmachham as duet was limited only to the Phagu songs and Basawa (a wedding custom in which one person asks and the other answers on the wedding day at the bride's home). But these days, this custom does not follow the hopmachham language. Today Phagu songs and Basawa are mostly performed in everday Puma language and also in Nepali.
4. Hopmachham and other cultures
Hopmachham can be sung on many occasions of Kiranti culture since it is believed to be the origin of all Kiranti rituals. A few existing rituals in Puma Rai community, which are related to hopmachham, are as follows:-
a) Hopmachham and Phagu dance (Sakewa dance)
In the past, Kiranti people used to sing hopmacham in Sakewa (Puma Rai call it Phagu) both in the form of single and duet. Some Puma singers are still found who sing single hopmachham in Phagu dance (CPDP 2006). The singer has sung it relating to the Phagu ritual. Especially, it also raises the head soul of all the singers, dancers and others.
b) Hopmachham and Basawa in marriage ceromony
Basawa is a wedding ritual celebrated at the bride's place, where the bride-side raises many questions to the bridegroom-side. The conversation in the song form is related to the forthcoming days of the bride at her husband's home. In the past days, Kiranti people used to speak Basawa in hopmachham. But these days, they conduct the Basawa in general Kiranti language as well in Nepali. People even believe that Basawa is originated from duet hopmachham, as it carries the main theme of hompachham, though they may perform in ordinary language. The audio-video recordings of hopmachham_02 done (CPDP 2006) arre related to the short description of Basawa and hopmachham rituals. The hopmachham sung in Basawa is also known as yari/hiyari/hiyochham.
c) Hopmachham and shamanic rites
The shamanic language in Kiranti language is called Risiwa/risiya. The hopmachham language and shamanic language are known as ritual languages. The shamanic work is a specific work at a specific place and time. Some of the ritual texts are same in hopmachham and shamanic languages. For example, the prayer to the Gods and Goddesses of the ridge and the area before the beginning of both rituals, the ritual journey (through enumeration of place names, see Allen 1974, Gaenszle 1994, 1999) from the place of singer through the Khokwalung/ Manalung up to Bunglukhora, BechhuDada. Most of the words of these two rituals are same. To perform these two rituals, the singer must gain the knowledge in his dream which can happen only by the blessing of the God. According to Kiranti belief, hopmachham is more powerful than the general shamanic spells and magic. Therefore not all shamans can sing hopmachham equally well. Most Kiranti shamans of the new generation do not sing hopmachham at all.
d) Hopmachham and Mangen
Mangen is a ritual which is done in mundum song. People worship the goddesses of grain and wealth in this worshipping. In Mangen, the grain refers only to the different varieties of millet planted in Kiranti areas. Puma Rais do this work twice in a year, during ubhauli (the rising season) as planting period and udhauli (the falling season) as harvesting period. This is a ritual journey and head raising (sir uthaune in Nepali) prayer of mongchhama (the goddess of the grain and wealth). Hopmachham and mangen have some similarities in many ways, i.e. to do both of these, the doer or singer must gain the knowledge in his dreams, these both are mundum songs, both of these are endangered in Kiranti Rai community, both of these are verbal as well as ritual journeys. There are some differences between these two cultures as well. There are different pre-historical and pre-cultural backgrounds, i.e. a chicken must be sacrificed in Mangen but not in Hopmachham, the ritual journey of Mangen starts from the worshipping place to the Terai in the south and up to Salpa pond in the North through the existing human path but the existing river is the main path in Hopmachham and the singer walks from the place of singing to Khokwalung and Manalung in the south up to the Bechhudada and Bunglukhora in the North. There is a time restriction to do the Mangen but not so much in doing Hopmachham. Hopmachham can be sung in many ways not only as the head raising of soul but Mangen is sung as only the head raising of the Goddess of grains.
e) Hopmachham and other Kiranti Rai songs
There are many ritual, cultural and folk songs in Kiranti Rai communities. Most of them are already dead, some of them are endangered and are moribund. Almost all of them are related to Hopmachham. Risiwa or Risiya is the shamanic song sung by shaman in many ritual works. The language of Risiwa and Hopmachham is same. Some of the description in these songs tend to similarity. Rungpuwachham is as a branch of hopmachham, in which the singer describes the historical and cultural events as well the description of the bravery of the forefathers. Rungpuwachham is almost extinct these days. Yari/hiyari/hiyochham is sung during the wedding ceremony as a form of Basawa which is described above. Saimachham is a song of birth, life and living and it is sung at work and at the waterpoint etc. speciially by women. But hopmachham singers used to sing this song also as hopmachham. Saimachham is also rarely found. Sakelachham (Phaguchham in Puma Rai) is a great existing song in Kiranti Rai community. Sakewachham is sung during the Sakewa dance in Ubhauli and Udhauli. The sakewa songs were used to sung as a form of Hopmachham. In these days, this song is sung in Nepali language as well as in other Kiranti Rai languages. Similarly, Hakparechham can also be taken as a folk song in Kirant Rai community. This song can be sung anywhere and by anybody and in anytime. These all kinds of Kirant Rai songs are related in many ways to Hopmachham as Hompachham is believed to be the origin of all kinds of songs.
5. Some special Features of Hopmachham
Special features of Hopamachham are given below in points.
• It is learnt in dream
• Only a few singers are left in Puma Rai community.
• It is a verbal and ritual journey
• Hopmachham and mundum are strongly related
• It explains the origin or creation of the world
• Queries and answers between two parties (duet)
• It is sung both in pleasure and tragedy
• It is sung at work and on cultural rites
• It's the origin of many kinds of Kiranti songs
• It's a historical oral document
• It is related to the real life and living style
• It represents endangered culture
6. Summary and Conclusion
Hopmachham is one of the highly endangered rituals that belong to the Rai Kiranti community. It is still found in the Puma Rai community in southern Khotang district. Most singers are above 50 and they all are shamans. It is a great and ancient, rhythmic account of Kiranti culture still little studied. It is known as the great repository of language, history and culture. Only shamans can be singers who have gained the knowledge of singing the hopmachham. Other people are not allowed to sing this song in general. Vocabularies and the language of Hopmachham are similar to the Kiranti mundum which shows that Hopmachham is the most important branch of mundum philosophy and practice. There are many ways and occasions to sing hopmachham. It can be sung as the description of the origin, as the romantic songs, as cultural rites and many more. It can be sung either in single or duet form, but these days only single form is found.
The study shows that hopmachham might die soon as the singers are over 50 and the new generation does not learn it. The changing modern lifestyle is replacing many old valuable cultures. Therefore, it is necessary to do something to preserve such cultures. CPDP a joint programme of University of Leipzig, Germany and Tribhuvan University of Nepal is doing an appreciable work documenting two endangered Kiranti languages and cultures, Puma and Chintang. The documentation is done through audio-video recordings to be put on to the archive, which will preserve the documented facts for a long. However, CPDP has been able to record only short clips of Hopmachham from seven different shamans found in Puma Rai community. There is a need to record Hopmachham completely which might take days. It is a great research topic for anthropologists and sociologists, and in case of lack of a proper documentation this valuable asset of mankind will be lost.
References
Allen, Nicholas J. 1978. Sewala Puja Bintila Puja notes on Thulung Ritual Language. Kailash 6 (4): 237-256. CNAS. Kathmandu.
Allen, Nicholas J. 1974. "The ritual journey: a pattern underlying certain Nepalese rituals." in Contributions to the Anthropology of Nepal. Edited by C. v. Fürer-Haimendorf, pp. 6-22. Warminster: Aris and Philipps.
Fox, J.J. (ed). 1988. To Speak in Pairs: Essays on the Ritual Languages of Eastern Indonesia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Gaenszle, Martin. 2002. Ancestral Voices: Oral Ritual Texts and their Social Contexts among the Mewahang Rai in East Nepal. Münster, Hamburg, London: LIT Verlag.
Gaenszle, Martin. 1999. "Travelling up and travelling down: the vertical dimension in Mewahang Rai ritual texts," in Himalayan space: cultural horizons and practices. Edited by B. Bickel, Martin Gaenszle. Zurich: Ethnological Museum of the University of Zurich.
Gaenszle, Martin. 1994. "Journey to the origin: a root metaphor in a Mewahang Rai healing ritual," in The anthropology of Nepal: peoples, problems, processes. Edited by M. A. (ed.), pp. 256-268. Kathmandu: Mandala Book Point.
Gaenszle, Martin. 1991. Verwandtschaft und Mythologie bei den Mewahang Rai in Ostnepal. Eine ethnographische Studie zum Problem der 'ethnischen Identität'. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag Wiesbaden
Gaenszle, Martin. 1999. The making of good ancestors: separation, transformation and exchange in Mewahang Rai funerary rites. In: Elisabeth Schömbucher & Claus Peter Zoller (ed.), Ways of dying: death and its meanings in South Asia. New Delhi: Manohar.
Gaenszle, Martin. 2000. Origins and migrations: kinship, mythology and ethnic identity among the Mewahang Rai of East Nepal. Kathmandu: Mandala Book Point & The Mountain Institute
Höfer, András. 1999. "Nomen est numen: preliminary notes on the verbal journey in some Western Tamang oral ritual texts," in Himalayan space: cultural horizons and practices. Edited by B. B. M. Gaenszle, pp. 205-244. Zürich: Völkerkundemuseum der Universität Zürich.
Vartaman, 2003, Vol. 17, “Kirat Rai Jatiko Paramparagat Git”, Nipsung, Kirant Rai Yayokkha, Kathmandu, Nepal
Rai, Jiten. 2006, Paruhang bulletin Published by Kirat Rai Students Association, Kirtipur, Nepal
A comparative study of the Hopmachham and ordinary song in Puma
A. Introduction
Kiranti community has rich cultural rituals. Some are well preserved from the earliest time while some others are dying and some are already dead. The community had a vast store of chham 'songs' some of which are extinct i.e. Rungpuwachham,Hakparechham, Yari/hiyo/hiyarichham, Saima/sahimachham, but some are still preserved viz. Sakelachham, Dolokupmachham, Risiya/risiwa, Hopmachham which are sung for different purposes on specific occasions. This paper focuses on an endangered melody known as Hopmachham which is extinct in several other Kiranti languages e.g. Bantawa, Chamling, Chintang. Hopmachham is a song which is sung by members of the Puma Rai community. This song narrates the origin and development of the earth and man. To prepare this paper, audio-video data of the Chintang Puma Documentation Project has been used. The data are from both the ritual texts as well as from everyday conversation, and it should be noted that the language of a ritual text and that of an everyday conversation differ.
Hopmachham is a great song based on Kiranti scriptural music. Etymologically, it is made up of two words hopma 'drink' and chham 'song': a drinking song or more accurately a song that makes you drunk with its charm. In other words, listening to this song one is drugged and enchanted with its magical properties. In order to sing this song, the knowledge of Kiranti oral tradition (Mundhum) is necessary. According to the Kiranti belief, not anybody can sing the song even if he knows it; only the person who has gained the knowledge to sing it in his dream and has not learned it, can sing it.
Ordinary song, on the other hand, is a part of living language, which is also found in many Kiranti languages. Puma Rais sing many kinds of ordinary songs on various occasions i.e. in festivals, at works, on the way etc. The ordinary songs are easier to understand than the cultural songs such as Hopmachham. The most popular ordinary song in Rai community is 'Sakela song', which is sung on the occasion of the greatest Kirati festival 'Sakela/Sakenwa/Tosi'. The Puma Rai community celebrates Sakela as Phagu and they called the song as 'Phagu chham'. The ordinary songs express the real experiences to their life and the world. Especially, the ordinary songs are sung to express love, humanity, affection, jokes, awakenings, loneliness, sorrow etc. Almost all ordinary songs are shorter and easier to sing and understand. It can be sung either mono or duet. Ordinary songs have not any specific time and place to sing. Various types of ordinary songs recorded by Chintang Puma Documentation Program are used to prepare this paper.
B. Language, Literature and Songs
Puma is an endangered language, which is spoken in the hilly regions of eastern Nepal. The total speakers of this language is only 4310 according to the national census, 2001. The speakers are from only a few villages of Khotang and Udayapur districts. The well spoken areas of the language are Diplung, Mauwabote, Devisthan, Pauwasera VDCs of Khotang district and a few villages such as Siddipur, Chaudandi, Beltar and Basaha of Udayapur district. Due to the migration, interlanguage marriage, lack of education in mother tounge and lack of preservation, the speakers of this language are decreasing day by day. Even the speakers from the generation of 60 are using Nepali language in their daily conversation.
There is no much literature in Puma. Only oral tradition of the literature are found. The speakers use it traditionally and only for the cultural fuctions. They use the literature of their laguage to say myths, folktales and sing some songs only.
There were many traditional/cultural songs in the past such as Rungpuwachham, Hakparechham, Yari/hiyo/hiyarichham, Saima/sahimachham, Hopmachham, Dolokupmachham, Risiya/risiwa. Most of them are exticnt. The singers of such great cultural songs are very hard to find. These songs are being extinct because they do not have written forms, they are sung only on specific occasions and they can be sung only by those shamans who have gained the knowledge to sing them in the dream by the grace of god. Hopmachham is only one traditioanl/cultural as well ritual song still found in Puma Rai community and thanks to Chintang Puma Documentaion Project which has audio-video recorded it.
The young literate people of the Puma community are have started creating literature in the Puma language, which is mostly songs, short poems, gazels, short stories etc.
C. Literal contents in Hompachham and Ordinary songs
1) Hopmacham:-
Hopmachham is song in ritual language which is different from ordinary songs not only in content but also in language. Seven shamans singing Hopachham were audio-video recorded by CPDP. Most singers are above 60 and out of the seven recordings one is a general talk on hopmachham delevered by Sain Dhoj Rai(75) of Mauwabote. According to him, hopmachham is a great tradition to song which is sung in various ceremonies or functions.
a.i)
chetkuma cha - it -a -bo ya pasmi chewʌr ya biha
daughter child - give -PST -GEN or rice.feeding hair.cutting or marriage
karje -do khamʌ kha- mʌ- bud -a -kina kha- mʌ- bud -a -kina
ceremony -GEN.LOC FS ANTIP- 3pS/A- call -IMP -PTCL ANTIP- 3pS/A- call -IMP –PTCL
(Call us in the ceremony of rice feeding, hair cutting or in marriage,..) (hopmacham_02.09)
a.ii)
jʌmma hopmacham mʌ- mu -a hopmacham mʌ- mu -a
all a.cultural.great.song 3pS/A- do -PST a.cultural.great.song 3pS/A- do –PST
(...all they sang hopmachham.)(hopmacham_02.10)
Man Bahadur Rai(66), a resident of Diplung-8, was only one who sings hopmachham while dancing the Phagu. By dancing on the beatings of drum and cymbal, in this song, he has breifly narrated the origin of mankind and the world. It is a great old tradition that forms a bond between man and god.
b)
haŋcha kap -ma maŋcha kap -ma loŋli -yaŋ
human make.pair –INF goddess make.pair -INF good.function –IPFV
(It is good to make a bond between human with the goddess.) (hopma_dance.003)
In the rest five recordings done by CPDP, hopmachham songs are sung by shamans or ritual periests above 65. Hopmacham_01 by Kamal Bahadur Rai(71) of Mauwabote-3, hopmacham_03 by Man Bahadur Rai(78) of Mauwabote-2, hopmacham_04 by Lal Dhan Rai(76) of Diplung-7, hopmacham_05 by Guman Sing Rai(73) of Diplung-7 and hopmacham_06 by Dal Bahadur Rai(83) of Diplung-6. While Guman Sing Rai and Dal Bahadur Rai are reknowened shamans, others are ritual priests called 'ngapong'. All of them have sung the hopmachham to explain the origin of the Gods/goddesses, earth, sky and everything existing in this world from the very earliest time. They have narrated the happenings in this world from the time of Sumnima and Paruhang(the greatest creators according to the Mundhum mythology). All of them said that it would take at least seven days without a break to sing Hopmachham completely because the song deals with the origin and history of not only the mankind but of the whole universe.
c.i)
aseyu -doŋkoŋ nam - yuŋŋ -a -kina nawari suntumri - lam
very.begening -GEN.ABLT sun - stay -PST -PTCP ancestral.way ancestral.way – path
( Through the ancient, time-honoured path of the elders ...)(hopmacham_01.022.a)
c.ii)
decha niki doŋdum mu -ma khuwa mu -ma namyuŋ -a -ku -e
how CONN ancestral.talk do -INF ancestral.talk do -INF to.exist -PST -EMPH -TEK.GEN
(how to talk on the ancestral talk for the first existence.... )(hopmacham_03.03)
c.iii)
hʌi busuyu -i busu -i -lo depa - lis -a nʌmma - lis -a
EXCLA long.time.ago -EMPH long.time.ago -EMPH -SIM what - become -PST what - become –PST
(What was happened in the very begening....)(hopmacham_04.01)
c.iv)
hai sari mun -ma henkhama mun -ma mamun -sa -ben
EMPH desease originate -INF earth originate -INF to.originate -SIM -NMLZ
(When the desease and the earth was originating.....)(hopmacham_05.005.b)
c.v)
sumnima -i duŋ -iŋkʌŋ paruhang -bo duŋ -iŋkʌŋ namyuŋ -moho namyuŋ -a -o
a_goddess -PST age -DOWN.ABLT a_god -GEN age -DOWN.ABLT to.exist -PTCL to.exist-PST –VOC
(It existed/originated in the time of Sumnima and Paruhang.) (hopmacham_06.04)
Hopmachham can also be sung as ritual journey. There are many ritual functions in Puma Rai community performed by shamans or priests through ritual journey. In the recording hopmacham_01, Kamal Bahadur Rai goes on a ritual journey while singing hopmachham. The singer walks along the river from the place where he starts his singing, then travels upto Chatara Wadera, which is accepted as the holy place in Mundhum philosophy. Then the singer takes a boat upto there, where Arun, Tamor and Sunkoshi rivers meet together. After visiting 'Chatara/Wadera', the singers returns at the same place from where he started singing the song. But he does not forget to explain that all these incidents happen through the permission of the God Paruhang. He prays to raise the soul and luck of every listners, singers as well as of the forthcoming generations.
d)
uŋ -ko rʌŋri sikhi rʌŋri hoŋcha rʌŋri chiya man- dha man- dha onei
1sPOSS -GEN luck pure luck human luck life.expectancy IMP.NEG- fall IMP.NEG- fall VOC
(my good luck, pure luck, human luck, may the life span not be diminished!) (hopmacham_01.243)16:48
In hopmacham_04, Lal Dhan Rai expressed his view on how to live and let others to live in this world. He appeals to live happily following and preserving the elders' customs and traditions.
e.i)
has -i mu -so khel -i mu -so lappa mu -so sili mu -so namyuŋ -in -ne
laugh -EMPH do -SIM game -EMPH do -SIM competition.in.dance do -SIM dancing.style do -SIM to.exist -1ns -PURP
(Lets live laughing, playing, and dancing.) (hopmacham_04.20.a)
e.ii)
papa riti namyuŋŋ -yaŋ -so namyuŋŋ -i -ne
father custom be.spread -IPFV -SIM be.spread -1/2p –PURP
(Lets spread the long lasting customs of our fore-father.)
(hopmacham_04.23)
Guman Sing Rai, in hopmacham_05, narrates termite was the first living being in this world and what was its role to build earth in the pre-historic age. The Kirati mythology Mundhum is varifeid by this hopmachham.
f)
hai ma henkhama mun -ma mamun -a -o boboyoŋma
EMPH FILLER the.earth originate -INF to.originate -PST -VOC termite
(The termite was the origin of the earth.)(hopmacham_05.011)
No femle singer of Hopmacham was found, although there are some female shamans. Most Puma people can not understand the semantic meaning of hopmachham. Only the persons who sing it and only the persons from old generation, who keep interest in it, understand the semantic meaning of hopmachham. Every line of hopmachham keeps equal importance in mythologial or cultural varies. There are not any specific criteria for the lines and stanza in hopmachham. It is known as song but done as a narrative story.
2) Ordinary songs:- Many ordinary songs found in Puma community sung by every gender and evey age group. There are a few young Puma people who have started to write songs to sing on various occasions, specially in two festivals Phagu dance and Tihar(Deepawali). Chintang Puma Documentation Project could record some such Puma ordinary songs. They are 26 in number and can be sung for the various purposes. A few songs, which have their base in the folk-songs, have made their appearance in local magazines. These songs are easy to understand in comparison to the ritual songs such as Hopmachham..
According to the singing place, season or time, ordinary songs can be devided as follows:
A. Festivals: There are many festivals celebrated in Puma Rai community. Some of them are celebrated nationally such as Tihar(Deepawali). Some of them are celebrated only in Kirat Rai community such as Sakenwa/Sakela or Phagu. Here we discuss only two festivals in which ordinary songs are sung.
Phagu:- Phagu is a great Puma festival, which is celebrated as Sakela/Sakewa/Toshi in other Rai group once a year at the month of Baisakh of Bikram Sambat calander. On this occasion, Puma people dance and sing in groups. They sing in their own language as well as in Nepali. Most Phagu songs which were recorded by CPDP, apeal the people to follow and preserve their culture i.e. the example numbers g) and h). Phagu songs can express love, affection and friendship too, i. e. Example number I). Phagu songs have couplets and only the second line in the couplet marks the theme of the poem, as is shown in g.ii), h.ii) and i.ii).
g.i)
wahut -i ŋasa kupp -i -ne soi soila ho soi soila
rivulet -DOWN.LOC fish pick.up -1ns -HORT VOC – VOC EXCLA VOC – VOC
(soi soila, let's catch fish in the rivulet)( phagu_song_01.04) LR(38/F) & DMR(40/F)
g.ii)
ke puma jʌmma tupp -i -ne soi soila ho soi soila
1pi Puma total meet -1ns -HORT VOC – VOC EXCLA VOC – VOC
(soi soila let's meet all Puma) (phagu_song_01.06) -LR(38/F) & DMR(40/F)
h.i)
bela -na bokwa selele selele
a_plant -FOC leaf IDEOPH IDEOPH
(The sound of the sinkauli leaves ''as the wind
blew them'') (pum_song_07.01) MR, DuR,DR,DeR
h.ii)
phagu lak mu -e -ne pelele pelele
nature.worship candi.dance do -1/2p -OPT queue.of.people queue.of.people
(Let us celebrate the Phagu dance in a row.) (pum_song_07.02.a) MR, DuR,DR,DeR
I.i)
dabe -na bit -ma chimarʌŋ chin -ma -kina
a.large.deadly.knife -EMPH put.on -INF waist.band tighten -INF –PTCL
( To put Khukuri on big waist belt, ) (pum_song_19.016) DMR(69/M)
I.ii)
ŋa -na ben -oŋ khʌnna sin -a -kina soi – soi
1s -EMPH come.level -1sS/P.PST 2s know -PST -PTCL VOC – VOC
( I came here seeing just you.) (pum_song_19.017) DMR(69/M)
Tihar :- Puma people also celebrate the Tihar as a great natioanl festival once in a year. The young people organize Deusi team (a group of people who goes door to door singing and dancing) at every villages. They sing mostly in Nepali language and sometimes in their own language. Four Tihar songs were found audio recorded ten years before. Those are the first documented songs in the Puma language by Puma themselves. CPDP has three recordings of Puma songs, which are sung in Tihar. One gives information about the Tihar, the rest two greets and bids farewell.
j.i)
tihar ta -yaŋ ʌkdoŋdo
tihar come -IPFV one - year -GEN.LOC
(Tihar comes once a year,) (pum_song_09.01 BR-26/F)
k.ii)
buŋwa bet -yaŋ khim - cheu -do
flower bloom -IPFV house - side -GEN.LOC
(flower blooms near the house) (pum_song_09.03) BR-26/F
k.i)
doŋbuŋ saskritik klʌb -bo sewa sewa jhara –lai
a_club cultural club -GEN greeting greeting all -DAT
(Dongbung cultural club greets to everyone.) (pum_song_12.01-BBR/M)
k.ii)
sarʌŋgi oŋ mandola -bo sewa sewa jhara -lai jhara –lai
a_musical.instrument CONN a_drum -GEN greeting greeting all -DAT all -DAT
(Greetings with Sarangi and Madal to everyone!) ((pum_song_12.03-BBR/M)
l.i)
mama papa -ci -o ta -a -nin -ka deusi khipd -yaŋ -so
mother father -ns -VOC come -PST -1ns -e singing-dancing play -IPFV –CVB
(Oh! elders! We came playing Deusi) (pum_song_11.01-NR/M/25)
l.ii)
aipʌdoŋ -lai puks -i -ka -ne sewa mu -yaŋ –so
this.year -DAT go -3P -e -HORT salute do -IPFV –CVB
(Let us go, for this year greeting to you.) (pum_song_11.03-NR/M/25)
B. Anytime:- There are many ordinary songs which can be sung anytime and in any places. Most of these are documented as folk songs, which apeal on the awakening of the people, show expectation towards the clan brothers or other relatives beyond the native land, express love, loneliness and romance. Most of the Tihar and Phagu songs are also related with similar themes. In the following example, the singer Prem Dhoj Rai (54/M) makes an appeal to the Pume people to wake up.
m.i)
puma -ci -o hen -na ke cha khups -i -ne
Sub-ethnic_group -ns -VOC now -EMPH 1pi ADD wake.up -1/2p –PURP
(Now, let's wake up all of us Pumas.) (pum_song_13.01)
m.ii)
henkhama khaŋ -so khaŋ -so puks -i -ne
the.earth see -SIM see -SIM go -1/2p –PURP
(Seeing the earth, let's go ahead.) (pum_song_13.02)
Mina Rai(30/F) and Kumari Rai(28/F) have expressed their love for the brother who is going abroad to earn money. It shows the real socio-economic culture of the community. The following is the first stanza of the song sung by them.
n.i)
daju khʌnna tʌ - puŋ-yaŋ bidesh
elder.brother 2s PTCL - go -IPFV aboard
(Brother, you going far places,) (pum_song_17.01)
n.ii)
ŋa na yuŋ -ŋa kabo -ŋe ka- asa
1s PTCL stay -1sS/P.NPST 2sPOSS -EMPH 2sPOSS- hope
(I wait you expecting you ever.) (pum_song_17.03)
There are some songs expressed love and loneliness in the absence of lover or spouse. Sakunta Rai(29/F) has expressed her affectional feelings through sakun_song_01.
o.i)
uŋ - minma hu - hot -yaŋ khʌnna -lai -ŋa lam -so
1sPOSS - heart move.round - TEL -IPFV 2s -DAT -EMPH search –CVB
(My heart is moving around looking for you, ) (sakun_song_01.01)
o.ii)
demkha yuŋ-ma khap -so khap -so demkha dha -ma si -so
when stay -INF weep -CVB weep -CVB when fall -INF die –CVB
(Sometimes to live crying and sometimes getting fall as die.) (sakun_song_01.02)
There are also romantic songs sung in 'mono' and 'duet' in ordinary language in Puma. Romantically mono songs are pum_song_15, pum_song_16, pum_song_20 and so on. In pum_dohori_01 and pum_dohori_02, Mitra Man Rai(71/M) and Padam Maya Rai(68/F) sang the duet song romantically. It is interesting that Mitra Man Rai and Padam Maya Rai are husband and wife in real life. These kinds of songs show humor, recreation and intense.
p.i)
chʌmkʌne bhoʈo chʌmmʌmʌ
colourful vest IDEOPH
(Colourful vest is Chhammama.) (pum_dohori_01.05) -MMR
p.ii)
he kanchi -o cham mu -ci -ne ammʌmʌ
VOC last.fem.sibiling -VOC song do -d -HORT IDEOPH
(Oh! My dear, let's sing a great song.) (pum_dohori_01.05) -MMR
q.i)
khʌnna -a nicce -ŋa tʌ- mu -u -ku khʌnna -a maya –ŋa
2s -ERG really -EMPH 2- do -3P -NMLZ 2s -ERG love –EMPH
(Do you really love to me?.) (pum_dohori_01.05) -PMR
q.ii)
atdi -ŋa ŋa –lai khʌnna -a maya tʌ- mu -oŋ nʌŋ nalo tupd -i nʌŋ
the.last.day -EMPH 1s-DAT 2s-ERG love 2-do -1sS/P.PST PTCL COND understand -3P PTCL
(If you loved me before, understand yourself.) (pum_dohori_01.05) -PMR
D. Short Comparative analyses of Hopmachham and Ordinary songs
1. History
The elder people who know a little about hopmachham, beleive that hopmachham is a very old tradition of singing in Kiranti communities. People assume that the origin of this song is as old as the Kiranti cultures and Mundhum/Mundum philosophy. But ordinary songs are modified form of previous language and songs as hopmachham.
2. Historical/cultural importances
Hopmachham is precious because it contains pre-historic knowledge about mankind and universe and because it is related to the Mundhum/Mundum ideology and kirati cultures. Ordinary songs, on the other hand, are related to everyday life and carry modern trend in development of literature of Puma language.
3. Singers
The singers of Hopmachham are almost above of 60, They are shamans who have gined knowledge to sing it in their dream by the grace of god. Only these shamans can sing it. But the singers of ordinary songs are from all kinds of age group who know the Puma language. Numerically, ordinary songs are sung by young generations.
4. Singing time and place
There is specific time and place to sing Hopmachham, but there is no the limitation of time and place to sing ordinary songs.
5. Begginning and ending 'antaraa'
The starting line of each stanza in Hopmachham is mostly started with a vocative word, ordinary song has no such speciality.
6. Use of songs
The using purpose of hopmachham is specially to explain the origin of the world to the listners. It is an oral culture. Ordinary songs can be sung on any occasion such as festivals, works, etc.
7. Restrictions in singing song
Only shamans who have gained the knowledge to sing it in their dream can sing Hopmachham It is therefore, restricted. But there is no such restriction to sing an ordinary song: anyone can sing it.
8. Status/ Influences
Hopmachham is highly endangered because it is sung by only the elderly shamans of 70 and because they are allowed to sing by their god. After the death of these shamans it might be extinct as the new genereation is not learning the Puma language let alone learn shamanism. In comparison to Hopmacham, ordinary songs is in better position, that is, they do not seem to be in the danger of being extinct.
E. Some special Features of Hopmachham and Ordinary songs
Special features of Hopamachham and ordinary songs are given below in points.
Homachham4
• Hopmachham is learnt in dream.
• Only a few singers of Hopmachham are left in Puma Rai community.
• It is a verbal and ritual journey.
• Hopmachham and mundum are strongly related.
• It explains the origin or creation of the world.
• Queries and answers between two parties (duet)
• It is sung both in pleasure and tragedy.
• It is sung at work and on cultural rites.
• It's the origin of many kinds of Kiranti songs.
• It's a historical oral document.
• It is related to the real life and living style.
• It represents endangered culture.
Ordinary songs
· Ordinary songs are learnt in real life through practice.
· The singers of ordinary songs are increasing day by day in Puma Rai community.
· Ordinary songs are influenced by mordernisation in the songs of other languages.
· Ordinary songs and a small part of living of the people are related.
· Can sung every occasion and everywhere.
· Found in individual writing tradition but singing is found in mono, duet or group.
· Some documented by the native speakers are found.
F. Summary and Conclusion
Hopmachham and chham are etymalogically looks not so different. But Hopmachham is not a ordinary song, . It is a great storage of cultural heritage in Puma Rai community. It explains all the history of origin relating to living being to human performances such as language, cultures etc. Hopmachham is very much endangered becasue there are many restrictions to sing this song. Only a few old people who are alive can sing it. Proper documentation and preservation of such a great mythological and historical wealth is, therefore, absolutely necessary. Ordinary songs are not really related with hopmachham in these days but it was a small part of hopmachham in the past. It can be sung in everytime and everywhere to express every human feelings and emotions. It is growing day by day to sing and document by same community members.
References
Allen, Nicholas J. 1978. Sewala Puja Bintila Puja notes on Thulung Ritual Language. Kailash 6 (4): 237-256. CNAS. Kathmandu.
Allen, Nicholas J. 1974. "The ritual journey: a pattern underlying certain Nepalese rituals." in Contributions to the Anthropology of Nepal. Edited by C. v. Fürer-Haimendorf, pp. 6-22. Warminster: Aris and Philipps.
Fox, J.J. (ed). 1988. To Speak in Pairs: Essays on the Ritual Languages of Eastern Indonesia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Gaenszle, Martin. 2002. Ancestral Voices: Oral Ritual Texts and their Social Contexts among the Mewahang Rai in East Nepal. Münster, Hamburg, London: LIT Verlag.
Gaenszle, Martin. 1999. "Travelling up and travelling down: the vertical dimension in Mewahang Rai ritual texts," in Himalayan space: cultural horizons and practices. Edited by B. Bickel, Martin Gaenszle. Zurich: Ethnological Museum of the University of Zurich.
Gaenszle, Martin. 1994. "Journey to the origin: a root metaphor in a Mewahang Rai healing ritual," in The anthropology of Nepal: peoples, problems, processes. Edited by M. A. (ed.), pp. 256-268. Kathmandu: Mandala Book Point.
Gaenszle, Martin. 1991. Verwandtschaft und Mythologie bei den Mewahang Rai in Ostnepal. Eine ethnographische Studie zum Problem der 'ethnischen Identität'. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag Wiesbaden
Gaenszle, Martin. 1999. The making of good ancestors: separation, transformation and exchange in Mewahang Rai funerary rites. In: Elisabeth Schömbucher & Claus Peter Zoller (ed.), Ways of dying: death and its meanings in South Asia. New Delhi: Manohar.
Gaenszle, Martin. 2000. Origins and migrations: kinship, mythology and ethnic identity among the Mewahang Rai of East Nepal. Kathmandu: Mandala Book Point & The Mountain Institute
Höfer, András. 1999. "Nomen est numen: preliminary notes on the verbal journey in some Western Tamang oral ritual texts," in Himalayan space: cultural horizons and practices. Edited by B. B. M. Gaenszle, pp. 205-244. Zürich: Völkerkundemuseum der Universität Zürich.
Vartaman, 2003, Vol. 17, “Kirat Rai Jatiko Paramparagat Git”, Nipsung, Kirant Rai Yayokkha, Kathmandu, Nepal
Rai, Jiten. 2006, Paruhang bulletin Published by Kirat Rai Students Association, Kirtipur, Nepal
Rai, Shree Kumar et al, Hopmachham4: An Example of Endangered Kiranti Culture, presented paper in SASON conference 2006, Kathmandu. (unpublished)
Rai, Shree Kumar, 2007, Vol, 26 Nipsung. PP.11-12. ''Kirant Puma Raiharuma Mongchama(Mangen) Puja'', Kirant Rai Yayokkha, Kathmandu, Nepal
Kiranti community has rich cultural rituals. Some are well preserved from the earliest time while some others are dying and some are already dead. The community had a vast store of chham 'songs' some of which are extinct i.e. Rungpuwachham,Hakparechham, Yari/hiyo/hiyarichham, Saima/sahimachham, but some are still preserved viz. Sakelachham, Dolokupmachham, Risiya/risiwa, Hopmachham which are sung for different purposes on specific occasions. This paper focuses on an endangered melody known as Hopmachham which is extinct in several other Kiranti languages e.g. Bantawa, Chamling, Chintang. Hopmachham is a song which is sung by members of the Puma Rai community. This song narrates the origin and development of the earth and man. To prepare this paper, audio-video data of the Chintang Puma Documentation Project has been used. The data are from both the ritual texts as well as from everyday conversation, and it should be noted that the language of a ritual text and that of an everyday conversation differ.
Hopmachham is a great song based on Kiranti scriptural music. Etymologically, it is made up of two words hopma 'drink' and chham 'song': a drinking song or more accurately a song that makes you drunk with its charm. In other words, listening to this song one is drugged and enchanted with its magical properties. In order to sing this song, the knowledge of Kiranti oral tradition (Mundhum) is necessary. According to the Kiranti belief, not anybody can sing the song even if he knows it; only the person who has gained the knowledge to sing it in his dream and has not learned it, can sing it.
Ordinary song, on the other hand, is a part of living language, which is also found in many Kiranti languages. Puma Rais sing many kinds of ordinary songs on various occasions i.e. in festivals, at works, on the way etc. The ordinary songs are easier to understand than the cultural songs such as Hopmachham. The most popular ordinary song in Rai community is 'Sakela song', which is sung on the occasion of the greatest Kirati festival 'Sakela/Sakenwa/Tosi'. The Puma Rai community celebrates Sakela as Phagu and they called the song as 'Phagu chham'. The ordinary songs express the real experiences to their life and the world. Especially, the ordinary songs are sung to express love, humanity, affection, jokes, awakenings, loneliness, sorrow etc. Almost all ordinary songs are shorter and easier to sing and understand. It can be sung either mono or duet. Ordinary songs have not any specific time and place to sing. Various types of ordinary songs recorded by Chintang Puma Documentation Program are used to prepare this paper.
B. Language, Literature and Songs
Puma is an endangered language, which is spoken in the hilly regions of eastern Nepal. The total speakers of this language is only 4310 according to the national census, 2001. The speakers are from only a few villages of Khotang and Udayapur districts. The well spoken areas of the language are Diplung, Mauwabote, Devisthan, Pauwasera VDCs of Khotang district and a few villages such as Siddipur, Chaudandi, Beltar and Basaha of Udayapur district. Due to the migration, interlanguage marriage, lack of education in mother tounge and lack of preservation, the speakers of this language are decreasing day by day. Even the speakers from the generation of 60 are using Nepali language in their daily conversation.
There is no much literature in Puma. Only oral tradition of the literature are found. The speakers use it traditionally and only for the cultural fuctions. They use the literature of their laguage to say myths, folktales and sing some songs only.
There were many traditional/cultural songs in the past such as Rungpuwachham, Hakparechham, Yari/hiyo/hiyarichham, Saima/sahimachham, Hopmachham, Dolokupmachham, Risiya/risiwa. Most of them are exticnt. The singers of such great cultural songs are very hard to find. These songs are being extinct because they do not have written forms, they are sung only on specific occasions and they can be sung only by those shamans who have gained the knowledge to sing them in the dream by the grace of god. Hopmachham is only one traditioanl/cultural as well ritual song still found in Puma Rai community and thanks to Chintang Puma Documentaion Project which has audio-video recorded it.
The young literate people of the Puma community are have started creating literature in the Puma language, which is mostly songs, short poems, gazels, short stories etc.
C. Literal contents in Hompachham and Ordinary songs
1) Hopmacham:-
Hopmachham is song in ritual language which is different from ordinary songs not only in content but also in language. Seven shamans singing Hopachham were audio-video recorded by CPDP. Most singers are above 60 and out of the seven recordings one is a general talk on hopmachham delevered by Sain Dhoj Rai(75) of Mauwabote. According to him, hopmachham is a great tradition to song which is sung in various ceremonies or functions.
a.i)
chetkuma cha - it -a -bo ya pasmi chewʌr ya biha
daughter child - give -PST -GEN or rice.feeding hair.cutting or marriage
karje -do khamʌ kha- mʌ- bud -a -kina kha- mʌ- bud -a -kina
ceremony -GEN.LOC FS ANTIP- 3pS/A- call -IMP -PTCL ANTIP- 3pS/A- call -IMP –PTCL
(Call us in the ceremony of rice feeding, hair cutting or in marriage,..) (hopmacham_02.09)
a.ii)
jʌmma hopmacham mʌ- mu -a hopmacham mʌ- mu -a
all a.cultural.great.song 3pS/A- do -PST a.cultural.great.song 3pS/A- do –PST
(...all they sang hopmachham.)(hopmacham_02.10)
Man Bahadur Rai(66), a resident of Diplung-8, was only one who sings hopmachham while dancing the Phagu. By dancing on the beatings of drum and cymbal, in this song, he has breifly narrated the origin of mankind and the world. It is a great old tradition that forms a bond between man and god.
b)
haŋcha kap -ma maŋcha kap -ma loŋli -yaŋ
human make.pair –INF goddess make.pair -INF good.function –IPFV
(It is good to make a bond between human with the goddess.) (hopma_dance.003)
In the rest five recordings done by CPDP, hopmachham songs are sung by shamans or ritual periests above 65. Hopmacham_01 by Kamal Bahadur Rai(71) of Mauwabote-3, hopmacham_03 by Man Bahadur Rai(78) of Mauwabote-2, hopmacham_04 by Lal Dhan Rai(76) of Diplung-7, hopmacham_05 by Guman Sing Rai(73) of Diplung-7 and hopmacham_06 by Dal Bahadur Rai(83) of Diplung-6. While Guman Sing Rai and Dal Bahadur Rai are reknowened shamans, others are ritual priests called 'ngapong'. All of them have sung the hopmachham to explain the origin of the Gods/goddesses, earth, sky and everything existing in this world from the very earliest time. They have narrated the happenings in this world from the time of Sumnima and Paruhang(the greatest creators according to the Mundhum mythology). All of them said that it would take at least seven days without a break to sing Hopmachham completely because the song deals with the origin and history of not only the mankind but of the whole universe.
c.i)
aseyu -doŋkoŋ nam - yuŋŋ -a -kina nawari suntumri - lam
very.begening -GEN.ABLT sun - stay -PST -PTCP ancestral.way ancestral.way – path
( Through the ancient, time-honoured path of the elders ...)(hopmacham_01.022.a)
c.ii)
decha niki doŋdum mu -ma khuwa mu -ma namyuŋ -a -ku -e
how CONN ancestral.talk do -INF ancestral.talk do -INF to.exist -PST -EMPH -TEK.GEN
(how to talk on the ancestral talk for the first existence.... )(hopmacham_03.03)
c.iii)
hʌi busuyu -i busu -i -lo depa - lis -a nʌmma - lis -a
EXCLA long.time.ago -EMPH long.time.ago -EMPH -SIM what - become -PST what - become –PST
(What was happened in the very begening....)(hopmacham_04.01)
c.iv)
hai sari mun -ma henkhama mun -ma mamun -sa -ben
EMPH desease originate -INF earth originate -INF to.originate -SIM -NMLZ
(When the desease and the earth was originating.....)(hopmacham_05.005.b)
c.v)
sumnima -i duŋ -iŋkʌŋ paruhang -bo duŋ -iŋkʌŋ namyuŋ -moho namyuŋ -a -o
a_goddess -PST age -DOWN.ABLT a_god -GEN age -DOWN.ABLT to.exist -PTCL to.exist-PST –VOC
(It existed/originated in the time of Sumnima and Paruhang.) (hopmacham_06.04)
Hopmachham can also be sung as ritual journey. There are many ritual functions in Puma Rai community performed by shamans or priests through ritual journey. In the recording hopmacham_01, Kamal Bahadur Rai goes on a ritual journey while singing hopmachham. The singer walks along the river from the place where he starts his singing, then travels upto Chatara Wadera, which is accepted as the holy place in Mundhum philosophy. Then the singer takes a boat upto there, where Arun, Tamor and Sunkoshi rivers meet together. After visiting 'Chatara/Wadera', the singers returns at the same place from where he started singing the song. But he does not forget to explain that all these incidents happen through the permission of the God Paruhang. He prays to raise the soul and luck of every listners, singers as well as of the forthcoming generations.
d)
uŋ -ko rʌŋri sikhi rʌŋri hoŋcha rʌŋri chiya man- dha man- dha onei
1sPOSS -GEN luck pure luck human luck life.expectancy IMP.NEG- fall IMP.NEG- fall VOC
(my good luck, pure luck, human luck, may the life span not be diminished!) (hopmacham_01.243)16:48
In hopmacham_04, Lal Dhan Rai expressed his view on how to live and let others to live in this world. He appeals to live happily following and preserving the elders' customs and traditions.
e.i)
has -i mu -so khel -i mu -so lappa mu -so sili mu -so namyuŋ -in -ne
laugh -EMPH do -SIM game -EMPH do -SIM competition.in.dance do -SIM dancing.style do -SIM to.exist -1ns -PURP
(Lets live laughing, playing, and dancing.) (hopmacham_04.20.a)
e.ii)
papa riti namyuŋŋ -yaŋ -so namyuŋŋ -i -ne
father custom be.spread -IPFV -SIM be.spread -1/2p –PURP
(Lets spread the long lasting customs of our fore-father.)
(hopmacham_04.23)
Guman Sing Rai, in hopmacham_05, narrates termite was the first living being in this world and what was its role to build earth in the pre-historic age. The Kirati mythology Mundhum is varifeid by this hopmachham.
f)
hai ma henkhama mun -ma mamun -a -o boboyoŋma
EMPH FILLER the.earth originate -INF to.originate -PST -VOC termite
(The termite was the origin of the earth.)(hopmacham_05.011)
No femle singer of Hopmacham was found, although there are some female shamans. Most Puma people can not understand the semantic meaning of hopmachham. Only the persons who sing it and only the persons from old generation, who keep interest in it, understand the semantic meaning of hopmachham. Every line of hopmachham keeps equal importance in mythologial or cultural varies. There are not any specific criteria for the lines and stanza in hopmachham. It is known as song but done as a narrative story.
2) Ordinary songs:- Many ordinary songs found in Puma community sung by every gender and evey age group. There are a few young Puma people who have started to write songs to sing on various occasions, specially in two festivals Phagu dance and Tihar(Deepawali). Chintang Puma Documentation Project could record some such Puma ordinary songs. They are 26 in number and can be sung for the various purposes. A few songs, which have their base in the folk-songs, have made their appearance in local magazines. These songs are easy to understand in comparison to the ritual songs such as Hopmachham..
According to the singing place, season or time, ordinary songs can be devided as follows:
A. Festivals: There are many festivals celebrated in Puma Rai community. Some of them are celebrated nationally such as Tihar(Deepawali). Some of them are celebrated only in Kirat Rai community such as Sakenwa/Sakela or Phagu. Here we discuss only two festivals in which ordinary songs are sung.
Phagu:- Phagu is a great Puma festival, which is celebrated as Sakela/Sakewa/Toshi in other Rai group once a year at the month of Baisakh of Bikram Sambat calander. On this occasion, Puma people dance and sing in groups. They sing in their own language as well as in Nepali. Most Phagu songs which were recorded by CPDP, apeal the people to follow and preserve their culture i.e. the example numbers g) and h). Phagu songs can express love, affection and friendship too, i. e. Example number I). Phagu songs have couplets and only the second line in the couplet marks the theme of the poem, as is shown in g.ii), h.ii) and i.ii).
g.i)
wahut -i ŋasa kupp -i -ne soi soila ho soi soila
rivulet -DOWN.LOC fish pick.up -1ns -HORT VOC – VOC EXCLA VOC – VOC
(soi soila, let's catch fish in the rivulet)( phagu_song_01.04) LR(38/F) & DMR(40/F)
g.ii)
ke puma jʌmma tupp -i -ne soi soila ho soi soila
1pi Puma total meet -1ns -HORT VOC – VOC EXCLA VOC – VOC
(soi soila let's meet all Puma) (phagu_song_01.06) -LR(38/F) & DMR(40/F)
h.i)
bela -na bokwa selele selele
a_plant -FOC leaf IDEOPH IDEOPH
(The sound of the sinkauli leaves ''as the wind
blew them'') (pum_song_07.01) MR, DuR,DR,DeR
h.ii)
phagu lak mu -e -ne pelele pelele
nature.worship candi.dance do -1/2p -OPT queue.of.people queue.of.people
(Let us celebrate the Phagu dance in a row.) (pum_song_07.02.a) MR, DuR,DR,DeR
I.i)
dabe -na bit -ma chimarʌŋ chin -ma -kina
a.large.deadly.knife -EMPH put.on -INF waist.band tighten -INF –PTCL
( To put Khukuri on big waist belt, ) (pum_song_19.016) DMR(69/M)
I.ii)
ŋa -na ben -oŋ khʌnna sin -a -kina soi – soi
1s -EMPH come.level -1sS/P.PST 2s know -PST -PTCL VOC – VOC
( I came here seeing just you.) (pum_song_19.017) DMR(69/M)
Tihar :- Puma people also celebrate the Tihar as a great natioanl festival once in a year. The young people organize Deusi team (a group of people who goes door to door singing and dancing) at every villages. They sing mostly in Nepali language and sometimes in their own language. Four Tihar songs were found audio recorded ten years before. Those are the first documented songs in the Puma language by Puma themselves. CPDP has three recordings of Puma songs, which are sung in Tihar. One gives information about the Tihar, the rest two greets and bids farewell.
j.i)
tihar ta -yaŋ ʌkdoŋdo
tihar come -IPFV one - year -GEN.LOC
(Tihar comes once a year,) (pum_song_09.01 BR-26/F)
k.ii)
buŋwa bet -yaŋ khim - cheu -do
flower bloom -IPFV house - side -GEN.LOC
(flower blooms near the house) (pum_song_09.03) BR-26/F
k.i)
doŋbuŋ saskritik klʌb -bo sewa sewa jhara –lai
a_club cultural club -GEN greeting greeting all -DAT
(Dongbung cultural club greets to everyone.) (pum_song_12.01-BBR/M)
k.ii)
sarʌŋgi oŋ mandola -bo sewa sewa jhara -lai jhara –lai
a_musical.instrument CONN a_drum -GEN greeting greeting all -DAT all -DAT
(Greetings with Sarangi and Madal to everyone!) ((pum_song_12.03-BBR/M)
l.i)
mama papa -ci -o ta -a -nin -ka deusi khipd -yaŋ -so
mother father -ns -VOC come -PST -1ns -e singing-dancing play -IPFV –CVB
(Oh! elders! We came playing Deusi) (pum_song_11.01-NR/M/25)
l.ii)
aipʌdoŋ -lai puks -i -ka -ne sewa mu -yaŋ –so
this.year -DAT go -3P -e -HORT salute do -IPFV –CVB
(Let us go, for this year greeting to you.) (pum_song_11.03-NR/M/25)
B. Anytime:- There are many ordinary songs which can be sung anytime and in any places. Most of these are documented as folk songs, which apeal on the awakening of the people, show expectation towards the clan brothers or other relatives beyond the native land, express love, loneliness and romance. Most of the Tihar and Phagu songs are also related with similar themes. In the following example, the singer Prem Dhoj Rai (54/M) makes an appeal to the Pume people to wake up.
m.i)
puma -ci -o hen -na ke cha khups -i -ne
Sub-ethnic_group -ns -VOC now -EMPH 1pi ADD wake.up -1/2p –PURP
(Now, let's wake up all of us Pumas.) (pum_song_13.01)
m.ii)
henkhama khaŋ -so khaŋ -so puks -i -ne
the.earth see -SIM see -SIM go -1/2p –PURP
(Seeing the earth, let's go ahead.) (pum_song_13.02)
Mina Rai(30/F) and Kumari Rai(28/F) have expressed their love for the brother who is going abroad to earn money. It shows the real socio-economic culture of the community. The following is the first stanza of the song sung by them.
n.i)
daju khʌnna tʌ - puŋ-yaŋ bidesh
elder.brother 2s PTCL - go -IPFV aboard
(Brother, you going far places,) (pum_song_17.01)
n.ii)
ŋa na yuŋ -ŋa kabo -ŋe ka- asa
1s PTCL stay -1sS/P.NPST 2sPOSS -EMPH 2sPOSS- hope
(I wait you expecting you ever.) (pum_song_17.03)
There are some songs expressed love and loneliness in the absence of lover or spouse. Sakunta Rai(29/F) has expressed her affectional feelings through sakun_song_01.
o.i)
uŋ - minma hu - hot -yaŋ khʌnna -lai -ŋa lam -so
1sPOSS - heart move.round - TEL -IPFV 2s -DAT -EMPH search –CVB
(My heart is moving around looking for you, ) (sakun_song_01.01)
o.ii)
demkha yuŋ-ma khap -so khap -so demkha dha -ma si -so
when stay -INF weep -CVB weep -CVB when fall -INF die –CVB
(Sometimes to live crying and sometimes getting fall as die.) (sakun_song_01.02)
There are also romantic songs sung in 'mono' and 'duet' in ordinary language in Puma. Romantically mono songs are pum_song_15, pum_song_16, pum_song_20 and so on. In pum_dohori_01 and pum_dohori_02, Mitra Man Rai(71/M) and Padam Maya Rai(68/F) sang the duet song romantically. It is interesting that Mitra Man Rai and Padam Maya Rai are husband and wife in real life. These kinds of songs show humor, recreation and intense.
p.i)
chʌmkʌne bhoʈo chʌmmʌmʌ
colourful vest IDEOPH
(Colourful vest is Chhammama.) (pum_dohori_01.05) -MMR
p.ii)
he kanchi -o cham mu -ci -ne ammʌmʌ
VOC last.fem.sibiling -VOC song do -d -HORT IDEOPH
(Oh! My dear, let's sing a great song.) (pum_dohori_01.05) -MMR
q.i)
khʌnna -a nicce -ŋa tʌ- mu -u -ku khʌnna -a maya –ŋa
2s -ERG really -EMPH 2- do -3P -NMLZ 2s -ERG love –EMPH
(Do you really love to me?.) (pum_dohori_01.05) -PMR
q.ii)
atdi -ŋa ŋa –lai khʌnna -a maya tʌ- mu -oŋ nʌŋ nalo tupd -i nʌŋ
the.last.day -EMPH 1s-DAT 2s-ERG love 2-do -1sS/P.PST PTCL COND understand -3P PTCL
(If you loved me before, understand yourself.) (pum_dohori_01.05) -PMR
D. Short Comparative analyses of Hopmachham and Ordinary songs
1. History
The elder people who know a little about hopmachham, beleive that hopmachham is a very old tradition of singing in Kiranti communities. People assume that the origin of this song is as old as the Kiranti cultures and Mundhum/Mundum philosophy. But ordinary songs are modified form of previous language and songs as hopmachham.
2. Historical/cultural importances
Hopmachham is precious because it contains pre-historic knowledge about mankind and universe and because it is related to the Mundhum/Mundum ideology and kirati cultures. Ordinary songs, on the other hand, are related to everyday life and carry modern trend in development of literature of Puma language.
3. Singers
The singers of Hopmachham are almost above of 60, They are shamans who have gined knowledge to sing it in their dream by the grace of god. Only these shamans can sing it. But the singers of ordinary songs are from all kinds of age group who know the Puma language. Numerically, ordinary songs are sung by young generations.
4. Singing time and place
There is specific time and place to sing Hopmachham, but there is no the limitation of time and place to sing ordinary songs.
5. Begginning and ending 'antaraa'
The starting line of each stanza in Hopmachham is mostly started with a vocative word, ordinary song has no such speciality.
6. Use of songs
The using purpose of hopmachham is specially to explain the origin of the world to the listners. It is an oral culture. Ordinary songs can be sung on any occasion such as festivals, works, etc.
7. Restrictions in singing song
Only shamans who have gained the knowledge to sing it in their dream can sing Hopmachham It is therefore, restricted. But there is no such restriction to sing an ordinary song: anyone can sing it.
8. Status/ Influences
Hopmachham is highly endangered because it is sung by only the elderly shamans of 70 and because they are allowed to sing by their god. After the death of these shamans it might be extinct as the new genereation is not learning the Puma language let alone learn shamanism. In comparison to Hopmacham, ordinary songs is in better position, that is, they do not seem to be in the danger of being extinct.
E. Some special Features of Hopmachham and Ordinary songs
Special features of Hopamachham and ordinary songs are given below in points.
Homachham4
• Hopmachham is learnt in dream.
• Only a few singers of Hopmachham are left in Puma Rai community.
• It is a verbal and ritual journey.
• Hopmachham and mundum are strongly related.
• It explains the origin or creation of the world.
• Queries and answers between two parties (duet)
• It is sung both in pleasure and tragedy.
• It is sung at work and on cultural rites.
• It's the origin of many kinds of Kiranti songs.
• It's a historical oral document.
• It is related to the real life and living style.
• It represents endangered culture.
Ordinary songs
· Ordinary songs are learnt in real life through practice.
· The singers of ordinary songs are increasing day by day in Puma Rai community.
· Ordinary songs are influenced by mordernisation in the songs of other languages.
· Ordinary songs and a small part of living of the people are related.
· Can sung every occasion and everywhere.
· Found in individual writing tradition but singing is found in mono, duet or group.
· Some documented by the native speakers are found.
F. Summary and Conclusion
Hopmachham and chham are etymalogically looks not so different. But Hopmachham is not a ordinary song, . It is a great storage of cultural heritage in Puma Rai community. It explains all the history of origin relating to living being to human performances such as language, cultures etc. Hopmachham is very much endangered becasue there are many restrictions to sing this song. Only a few old people who are alive can sing it. Proper documentation and preservation of such a great mythological and historical wealth is, therefore, absolutely necessary. Ordinary songs are not really related with hopmachham in these days but it was a small part of hopmachham in the past. It can be sung in everytime and everywhere to express every human feelings and emotions. It is growing day by day to sing and document by same community members.
References
Allen, Nicholas J. 1978. Sewala Puja Bintila Puja notes on Thulung Ritual Language. Kailash 6 (4): 237-256. CNAS. Kathmandu.
Allen, Nicholas J. 1974. "The ritual journey: a pattern underlying certain Nepalese rituals." in Contributions to the Anthropology of Nepal. Edited by C. v. Fürer-Haimendorf, pp. 6-22. Warminster: Aris and Philipps.
Fox, J.J. (ed). 1988. To Speak in Pairs: Essays on the Ritual Languages of Eastern Indonesia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Gaenszle, Martin. 2002. Ancestral Voices: Oral Ritual Texts and their Social Contexts among the Mewahang Rai in East Nepal. Münster, Hamburg, London: LIT Verlag.
Gaenszle, Martin. 1999. "Travelling up and travelling down: the vertical dimension in Mewahang Rai ritual texts," in Himalayan space: cultural horizons and practices. Edited by B. Bickel, Martin Gaenszle. Zurich: Ethnological Museum of the University of Zurich.
Gaenszle, Martin. 1994. "Journey to the origin: a root metaphor in a Mewahang Rai healing ritual," in The anthropology of Nepal: peoples, problems, processes. Edited by M. A. (ed.), pp. 256-268. Kathmandu: Mandala Book Point.
Gaenszle, Martin. 1991. Verwandtschaft und Mythologie bei den Mewahang Rai in Ostnepal. Eine ethnographische Studie zum Problem der 'ethnischen Identität'. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag Wiesbaden
Gaenszle, Martin. 1999. The making of good ancestors: separation, transformation and exchange in Mewahang Rai funerary rites. In: Elisabeth Schömbucher & Claus Peter Zoller (ed.), Ways of dying: death and its meanings in South Asia. New Delhi: Manohar.
Gaenszle, Martin. 2000. Origins and migrations: kinship, mythology and ethnic identity among the Mewahang Rai of East Nepal. Kathmandu: Mandala Book Point & The Mountain Institute
Höfer, András. 1999. "Nomen est numen: preliminary notes on the verbal journey in some Western Tamang oral ritual texts," in Himalayan space: cultural horizons and practices. Edited by B. B. M. Gaenszle, pp. 205-244. Zürich: Völkerkundemuseum der Universität Zürich.
Vartaman, 2003, Vol. 17, “Kirat Rai Jatiko Paramparagat Git”, Nipsung, Kirant Rai Yayokkha, Kathmandu, Nepal
Rai, Jiten. 2006, Paruhang bulletin Published by Kirat Rai Students Association, Kirtipur, Nepal
Rai, Shree Kumar et al, Hopmachham4: An Example of Endangered Kiranti Culture, presented paper in SASON conference 2006, Kathmandu. (unpublished)
Rai, Shree Kumar, 2007, Vol, 26 Nipsung. PP.11-12. ''Kirant Puma Raiharuma Mongchama(Mangen) Puja'', Kirant Rai Yayokkha, Kathmandu, Nepal
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