A. Introduction
Kiranti community has rich cultural rituals. Some are well preserved from the earliest time while some others are dying and some are already dead. The community had a vast store of chham 'songs' some of which are extinct i.e. Rungpuwachham,Hakparechham, Yari/hiyo/hiyarichham, Saima/sahimachham, but some are still preserved viz. Sakelachham, Dolokupmachham, Risiya/risiwa, Hopmachham which are sung for different purposes on specific occasions. This paper focuses on an endangered melody known as Hopmachham which is extinct in several other Kiranti languages e.g. Bantawa, Chamling, Chintang. Hopmachham is a song which is sung by members of the Puma Rai community. This song narrates the origin and development of the earth and man. To prepare this paper, audio-video data of the Chintang Puma Documentation Project has been used. The data are from both the ritual texts as well as from everyday conversation, and it should be noted that the language of a ritual text and that of an everyday conversation differ.
Hopmachham is a great song based on Kiranti scriptural music. Etymologically, it is made up of two words hopma 'drink' and chham 'song': a drinking song or more accurately a song that makes you drunk with its charm. In other words, listening to this song one is drugged and enchanted with its magical properties. In order to sing this song, the knowledge of Kiranti oral tradition (Mundhum) is necessary. According to the Kiranti belief, not anybody can sing the song even if he knows it; only the person who has gained the knowledge to sing it in his dream and has not learned it, can sing it.
Ordinary song, on the other hand, is a part of living language, which is also found in many Kiranti languages. Puma Rais sing many kinds of ordinary songs on various occasions i.e. in festivals, at works, on the way etc. The ordinary songs are easier to understand than the cultural songs such as Hopmachham. The most popular ordinary song in Rai community is 'Sakela song', which is sung on the occasion of the greatest Kirati festival 'Sakela/Sakenwa/Tosi'. The Puma Rai community celebrates Sakela as Phagu and they called the song as 'Phagu chham'. The ordinary songs express the real experiences to their life and the world. Especially, the ordinary songs are sung to express love, humanity, affection, jokes, awakenings, loneliness, sorrow etc. Almost all ordinary songs are shorter and easier to sing and understand. It can be sung either mono or duet. Ordinary songs have not any specific time and place to sing. Various types of ordinary songs recorded by Chintang Puma Documentation Program are used to prepare this paper.
B. Language, Literature and Songs
Puma is an endangered language, which is spoken in the hilly regions of eastern Nepal. The total speakers of this language is only 4310 according to the national census, 2001. The speakers are from only a few villages of Khotang and Udayapur districts. The well spoken areas of the language are Diplung, Mauwabote, Devisthan, Pauwasera VDCs of Khotang district and a few villages such as Siddipur, Chaudandi, Beltar and Basaha of Udayapur district. Due to the migration, interlanguage marriage, lack of education in mother tounge and lack of preservation, the speakers of this language are decreasing day by day. Even the speakers from the generation of 60 are using Nepali language in their daily conversation.
There is no much literature in Puma. Only oral tradition of the literature are found. The speakers use it traditionally and only for the cultural fuctions. They use the literature of their laguage to say myths, folktales and sing some songs only.
There were many traditional/cultural songs in the past such as Rungpuwachham, Hakparechham, Yari/hiyo/hiyarichham, Saima/sahimachham, Hopmachham, Dolokupmachham, Risiya/risiwa. Most of them are exticnt. The singers of such great cultural songs are very hard to find. These songs are being extinct because they do not have written forms, they are sung only on specific occasions and they can be sung only by those shamans who have gained the knowledge to sing them in the dream by the grace of god. Hopmachham is only one traditioanl/cultural as well ritual song still found in Puma Rai community and thanks to Chintang Puma Documentaion Project which has audio-video recorded it.
The young literate people of the Puma community are have started creating literature in the Puma language, which is mostly songs, short poems, gazels, short stories etc.
C. Literal contents in Hompachham and Ordinary songs
1) Hopmacham:-
Hopmachham is song in ritual language which is different from ordinary songs not only in content but also in language. Seven shamans singing Hopachham were audio-video recorded by CPDP. Most singers are above 60 and out of the seven recordings one is a general talk on hopmachham delevered by Sain Dhoj Rai(75) of Mauwabote. According to him, hopmachham is a great tradition to song which is sung in various ceremonies or functions.
a.i)
chetkuma cha - it -a -bo ya pasmi chewʌr ya biha
daughter child - give -PST -GEN or rice.feeding hair.cutting or marriage
karje -do khamʌ kha- mʌ- bud -a -kina kha- mʌ- bud -a -kina
ceremony -GEN.LOC FS ANTIP- 3pS/A- call -IMP -PTCL ANTIP- 3pS/A- call -IMP –PTCL
(Call us in the ceremony of rice feeding, hair cutting or in marriage,..) (hopmacham_02.09)
a.ii)
jʌmma hopmacham mʌ- mu -a hopmacham mʌ- mu -a
all a.cultural.great.song 3pS/A- do -PST a.cultural.great.song 3pS/A- do –PST
(...all they sang hopmachham.)(hopmacham_02.10)
Man Bahadur Rai(66), a resident of Diplung-8, was only one who sings hopmachham while dancing the Phagu. By dancing on the beatings of drum and cymbal, in this song, he has breifly narrated the origin of mankind and the world. It is a great old tradition that forms a bond between man and god.
b)
haŋcha kap -ma maŋcha kap -ma loŋli -yaŋ
human make.pair –INF goddess make.pair -INF good.function –IPFV
(It is good to make a bond between human with the goddess.) (hopma_dance.003)
In the rest five recordings done by CPDP, hopmachham songs are sung by shamans or ritual periests above 65. Hopmacham_01 by Kamal Bahadur Rai(71) of Mauwabote-3, hopmacham_03 by Man Bahadur Rai(78) of Mauwabote-2, hopmacham_04 by Lal Dhan Rai(76) of Diplung-7, hopmacham_05 by Guman Sing Rai(73) of Diplung-7 and hopmacham_06 by Dal Bahadur Rai(83) of Diplung-6. While Guman Sing Rai and Dal Bahadur Rai are reknowened shamans, others are ritual priests called 'ngapong'. All of them have sung the hopmachham to explain the origin of the Gods/goddesses, earth, sky and everything existing in this world from the very earliest time. They have narrated the happenings in this world from the time of Sumnima and Paruhang(the greatest creators according to the Mundhum mythology). All of them said that it would take at least seven days without a break to sing Hopmachham completely because the song deals with the origin and history of not only the mankind but of the whole universe.
c.i)
aseyu -doŋkoŋ nam - yuŋŋ -a -kina nawari suntumri - lam
very.begening -GEN.ABLT sun - stay -PST -PTCP ancestral.way ancestral.way – path
( Through the ancient, time-honoured path of the elders ...)(hopmacham_01.022.a)
c.ii)
decha niki doŋdum mu -ma khuwa mu -ma namyuŋ -a -ku -e
how CONN ancestral.talk do -INF ancestral.talk do -INF to.exist -PST -EMPH -TEK.GEN
(how to talk on the ancestral talk for the first existence.... )(hopmacham_03.03)
c.iii)
hʌi busuyu -i busu -i -lo depa - lis -a nʌmma - lis -a
EXCLA long.time.ago -EMPH long.time.ago -EMPH -SIM what - become -PST what - become –PST
(What was happened in the very begening....)(hopmacham_04.01)
c.iv)
hai sari mun -ma henkhama mun -ma mamun -sa -ben
EMPH desease originate -INF earth originate -INF to.originate -SIM -NMLZ
(When the desease and the earth was originating.....)(hopmacham_05.005.b)
c.v)
sumnima -i duŋ -iŋkʌŋ paruhang -bo duŋ -iŋkʌŋ namyuŋ -moho namyuŋ -a -o
a_goddess -PST age -DOWN.ABLT a_god -GEN age -DOWN.ABLT to.exist -PTCL to.exist-PST –VOC
(It existed/originated in the time of Sumnima and Paruhang.) (hopmacham_06.04)
Hopmachham can also be sung as ritual journey. There are many ritual functions in Puma Rai community performed by shamans or priests through ritual journey. In the recording hopmacham_01, Kamal Bahadur Rai goes on a ritual journey while singing hopmachham. The singer walks along the river from the place where he starts his singing, then travels upto Chatara Wadera, which is accepted as the holy place in Mundhum philosophy. Then the singer takes a boat upto there, where Arun, Tamor and Sunkoshi rivers meet together. After visiting 'Chatara/Wadera', the singers returns at the same place from where he started singing the song. But he does not forget to explain that all these incidents happen through the permission of the God Paruhang. He prays to raise the soul and luck of every listners, singers as well as of the forthcoming generations.
d)
uŋ -ko rʌŋri sikhi rʌŋri hoŋcha rʌŋri chiya man- dha man- dha onei
1sPOSS -GEN luck pure luck human luck life.expectancy IMP.NEG- fall IMP.NEG- fall VOC
(my good luck, pure luck, human luck, may the life span not be diminished!) (hopmacham_01.243)16:48
In hopmacham_04, Lal Dhan Rai expressed his view on how to live and let others to live in this world. He appeals to live happily following and preserving the elders' customs and traditions.
e.i)
has -i mu -so khel -i mu -so lappa mu -so sili mu -so namyuŋ -in -ne
laugh -EMPH do -SIM game -EMPH do -SIM competition.in.dance do -SIM dancing.style do -SIM to.exist -1ns -PURP
(Lets live laughing, playing, and dancing.) (hopmacham_04.20.a)
e.ii)
papa riti namyuŋŋ -yaŋ -so namyuŋŋ -i -ne
father custom be.spread -IPFV -SIM be.spread -1/2p –PURP
(Lets spread the long lasting customs of our fore-father.)
(hopmacham_04.23)
Guman Sing Rai, in hopmacham_05, narrates termite was the first living being in this world and what was its role to build earth in the pre-historic age. The Kirati mythology Mundhum is varifeid by this hopmachham.
f)
hai ma henkhama mun -ma mamun -a -o boboyoŋma
EMPH FILLER the.earth originate -INF to.originate -PST -VOC termite
(The termite was the origin of the earth.)(hopmacham_05.011)
No femle singer of Hopmacham was found, although there are some female shamans. Most Puma people can not understand the semantic meaning of hopmachham. Only the persons who sing it and only the persons from old generation, who keep interest in it, understand the semantic meaning of hopmachham. Every line of hopmachham keeps equal importance in mythologial or cultural varies. There are not any specific criteria for the lines and stanza in hopmachham. It is known as song but done as a narrative story.
2) Ordinary songs:- Many ordinary songs found in Puma community sung by every gender and evey age group. There are a few young Puma people who have started to write songs to sing on various occasions, specially in two festivals Phagu dance and Tihar(Deepawali). Chintang Puma Documentation Project could record some such Puma ordinary songs. They are 26 in number and can be sung for the various purposes. A few songs, which have their base in the folk-songs, have made their appearance in local magazines. These songs are easy to understand in comparison to the ritual songs such as Hopmachham..
According to the singing place, season or time, ordinary songs can be devided as follows:
A. Festivals: There are many festivals celebrated in Puma Rai community. Some of them are celebrated nationally such as Tihar(Deepawali). Some of them are celebrated only in Kirat Rai community such as Sakenwa/Sakela or Phagu. Here we discuss only two festivals in which ordinary songs are sung.
Phagu:- Phagu is a great Puma festival, which is celebrated as Sakela/Sakewa/Toshi in other Rai group once a year at the month of Baisakh of Bikram Sambat calander. On this occasion, Puma people dance and sing in groups. They sing in their own language as well as in Nepali. Most Phagu songs which were recorded by CPDP, apeal the people to follow and preserve their culture i.e. the example numbers g) and h). Phagu songs can express love, affection and friendship too, i. e. Example number I). Phagu songs have couplets and only the second line in the couplet marks the theme of the poem, as is shown in g.ii), h.ii) and i.ii).
g.i)
wahut -i ŋasa kupp -i -ne soi soila ho soi soila
rivulet -DOWN.LOC fish pick.up -1ns -HORT VOC – VOC EXCLA VOC – VOC
(soi soila, let's catch fish in the rivulet)( phagu_song_01.04) LR(38/F) & DMR(40/F)
g.ii)
ke puma jʌmma tupp -i -ne soi soila ho soi soila
1pi Puma total meet -1ns -HORT VOC – VOC EXCLA VOC – VOC
(soi soila let's meet all Puma) (phagu_song_01.06) -LR(38/F) & DMR(40/F)
h.i)
bela -na bokwa selele selele
a_plant -FOC leaf IDEOPH IDEOPH
(The sound of the sinkauli leaves ''as the wind
blew them'') (pum_song_07.01) MR, DuR,DR,DeR
h.ii)
phagu lak mu -e -ne pelele pelele
nature.worship candi.dance do -1/2p -OPT queue.of.people queue.of.people
(Let us celebrate the Phagu dance in a row.) (pum_song_07.02.a) MR, DuR,DR,DeR
I.i)
dabe -na bit -ma chimarʌŋ chin -ma -kina
a.large.deadly.knife -EMPH put.on -INF waist.band tighten -INF –PTCL
( To put Khukuri on big waist belt, ) (pum_song_19.016) DMR(69/M)
I.ii)
ŋa -na ben -oŋ khʌnna sin -a -kina soi – soi
1s -EMPH come.level -1sS/P.PST 2s know -PST -PTCL VOC – VOC
( I came here seeing just you.) (pum_song_19.017) DMR(69/M)
Tihar :- Puma people also celebrate the Tihar as a great natioanl festival once in a year. The young people organize Deusi team (a group of people who goes door to door singing and dancing) at every villages. They sing mostly in Nepali language and sometimes in their own language. Four Tihar songs were found audio recorded ten years before. Those are the first documented songs in the Puma language by Puma themselves. CPDP has three recordings of Puma songs, which are sung in Tihar. One gives information about the Tihar, the rest two greets and bids farewell.
j.i)
tihar ta -yaŋ ʌkdoŋdo
tihar come -IPFV one - year -GEN.LOC
(Tihar comes once a year,) (pum_song_09.01 BR-26/F)
k.ii)
buŋwa bet -yaŋ khim - cheu -do
flower bloom -IPFV house - side -GEN.LOC
(flower blooms near the house) (pum_song_09.03) BR-26/F
k.i)
doŋbuŋ saskritik klʌb -bo sewa sewa jhara –lai
a_club cultural club -GEN greeting greeting all -DAT
(Dongbung cultural club greets to everyone.) (pum_song_12.01-BBR/M)
k.ii)
sarʌŋgi oŋ mandola -bo sewa sewa jhara -lai jhara –lai
a_musical.instrument CONN a_drum -GEN greeting greeting all -DAT all -DAT
(Greetings with Sarangi and Madal to everyone!) ((pum_song_12.03-BBR/M)
l.i)
mama papa -ci -o ta -a -nin -ka deusi khipd -yaŋ -so
mother father -ns -VOC come -PST -1ns -e singing-dancing play -IPFV –CVB
(Oh! elders! We came playing Deusi) (pum_song_11.01-NR/M/25)
l.ii)
aipʌdoŋ -lai puks -i -ka -ne sewa mu -yaŋ –so
this.year -DAT go -3P -e -HORT salute do -IPFV –CVB
(Let us go, for this year greeting to you.) (pum_song_11.03-NR/M/25)
B. Anytime:- There are many ordinary songs which can be sung anytime and in any places. Most of these are documented as folk songs, which apeal on the awakening of the people, show expectation towards the clan brothers or other relatives beyond the native land, express love, loneliness and romance. Most of the Tihar and Phagu songs are also related with similar themes. In the following example, the singer Prem Dhoj Rai (54/M) makes an appeal to the Pume people to wake up.
m.i)
puma -ci -o hen -na ke cha khups -i -ne
Sub-ethnic_group -ns -VOC now -EMPH 1pi ADD wake.up -1/2p –PURP
(Now, let's wake up all of us Pumas.) (pum_song_13.01)
m.ii)
henkhama khaŋ -so khaŋ -so puks -i -ne
the.earth see -SIM see -SIM go -1/2p –PURP
(Seeing the earth, let's go ahead.) (pum_song_13.02)
Mina Rai(30/F) and Kumari Rai(28/F) have expressed their love for the brother who is going abroad to earn money. It shows the real socio-economic culture of the community. The following is the first stanza of the song sung by them.
n.i)
daju khʌnna tʌ - puŋ-yaŋ bidesh
elder.brother 2s PTCL - go -IPFV aboard
(Brother, you going far places,) (pum_song_17.01)
n.ii)
ŋa na yuŋ -ŋa kabo -ŋe ka- asa
1s PTCL stay -1sS/P.NPST 2sPOSS -EMPH 2sPOSS- hope
(I wait you expecting you ever.) (pum_song_17.03)
There are some songs expressed love and loneliness in the absence of lover or spouse. Sakunta Rai(29/F) has expressed her affectional feelings through sakun_song_01.
o.i)
uŋ - minma hu - hot -yaŋ khʌnna -lai -ŋa lam -so
1sPOSS - heart move.round - TEL -IPFV 2s -DAT -EMPH search –CVB
(My heart is moving around looking for you, ) (sakun_song_01.01)
o.ii)
demkha yuŋ-ma khap -so khap -so demkha dha -ma si -so
when stay -INF weep -CVB weep -CVB when fall -INF die –CVB
(Sometimes to live crying and sometimes getting fall as die.) (sakun_song_01.02)
There are also romantic songs sung in 'mono' and 'duet' in ordinary language in Puma. Romantically mono songs are pum_song_15, pum_song_16, pum_song_20 and so on. In pum_dohori_01 and pum_dohori_02, Mitra Man Rai(71/M) and Padam Maya Rai(68/F) sang the duet song romantically. It is interesting that Mitra Man Rai and Padam Maya Rai are husband and wife in real life. These kinds of songs show humor, recreation and intense.
p.i)
chʌmkʌne bhoʈo chʌmmʌmʌ
colourful vest IDEOPH
(Colourful vest is Chhammama.) (pum_dohori_01.05) -MMR
p.ii)
he kanchi -o cham mu -ci -ne ammʌmʌ
VOC last.fem.sibiling -VOC song do -d -HORT IDEOPH
(Oh! My dear, let's sing a great song.) (pum_dohori_01.05) -MMR
q.i)
khʌnna -a nicce -ŋa tʌ- mu -u -ku khʌnna -a maya –ŋa
2s -ERG really -EMPH 2- do -3P -NMLZ 2s -ERG love –EMPH
(Do you really love to me?.) (pum_dohori_01.05) -PMR
q.ii)
atdi -ŋa ŋa –lai khʌnna -a maya tʌ- mu -oŋ nʌŋ nalo tupd -i nʌŋ
the.last.day -EMPH 1s-DAT 2s-ERG love 2-do -1sS/P.PST PTCL COND understand -3P PTCL
(If you loved me before, understand yourself.) (pum_dohori_01.05) -PMR
D. Short Comparative analyses of Hopmachham and Ordinary songs
1. History
The elder people who know a little about hopmachham, beleive that hopmachham is a very old tradition of singing in Kiranti communities. People assume that the origin of this song is as old as the Kiranti cultures and Mundhum/Mundum philosophy. But ordinary songs are modified form of previous language and songs as hopmachham.
2. Historical/cultural importances
Hopmachham is precious because it contains pre-historic knowledge about mankind and universe and because it is related to the Mundhum/Mundum ideology and kirati cultures. Ordinary songs, on the other hand, are related to everyday life and carry modern trend in development of literature of Puma language.
3. Singers
The singers of Hopmachham are almost above of 60, They are shamans who have gined knowledge to sing it in their dream by the grace of god. Only these shamans can sing it. But the singers of ordinary songs are from all kinds of age group who know the Puma language. Numerically, ordinary songs are sung by young generations.
4. Singing time and place
There is specific time and place to sing Hopmachham, but there is no the limitation of time and place to sing ordinary songs.
5. Begginning and ending 'antaraa'
The starting line of each stanza in Hopmachham is mostly started with a vocative word, ordinary song has no such speciality.
6. Use of songs
The using purpose of hopmachham is specially to explain the origin of the world to the listners. It is an oral culture. Ordinary songs can be sung on any occasion such as festivals, works, etc.
7. Restrictions in singing song
Only shamans who have gained the knowledge to sing it in their dream can sing Hopmachham It is therefore, restricted. But there is no such restriction to sing an ordinary song: anyone can sing it.
8. Status/ Influences
Hopmachham is highly endangered because it is sung by only the elderly shamans of 70 and because they are allowed to sing by their god. After the death of these shamans it might be extinct as the new genereation is not learning the Puma language let alone learn shamanism. In comparison to Hopmacham, ordinary songs is in better position, that is, they do not seem to be in the danger of being extinct.
E. Some special Features of Hopmachham and Ordinary songs
Special features of Hopamachham and ordinary songs are given below in points.
Homachham4
• Hopmachham is learnt in dream.
• Only a few singers of Hopmachham are left in Puma Rai community.
• It is a verbal and ritual journey.
• Hopmachham and mundum are strongly related.
• It explains the origin or creation of the world.
• Queries and answers between two parties (duet)
• It is sung both in pleasure and tragedy.
• It is sung at work and on cultural rites.
• It's the origin of many kinds of Kiranti songs.
• It's a historical oral document.
• It is related to the real life and living style.
• It represents endangered culture.
Ordinary songs
· Ordinary songs are learnt in real life through practice.
· The singers of ordinary songs are increasing day by day in Puma Rai community.
· Ordinary songs are influenced by mordernisation in the songs of other languages.
· Ordinary songs and a small part of living of the people are related.
· Can sung every occasion and everywhere.
· Found in individual writing tradition but singing is found in mono, duet or group.
· Some documented by the native speakers are found.
F. Summary and Conclusion
Hopmachham and chham are etymalogically looks not so different. But Hopmachham is not a ordinary song, . It is a great storage of cultural heritage in Puma Rai community. It explains all the history of origin relating to living being to human performances such as language, cultures etc. Hopmachham is very much endangered becasue there are many restrictions to sing this song. Only a few old people who are alive can sing it. Proper documentation and preservation of such a great mythological and historical wealth is, therefore, absolutely necessary. Ordinary songs are not really related with hopmachham in these days but it was a small part of hopmachham in the past. It can be sung in everytime and everywhere to express every human feelings and emotions. It is growing day by day to sing and document by same community members.
References
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Rai, Shree Kumar, 2007, Vol, 26 Nipsung. PP.11-12. ''Kirant Puma Raiharuma Mongchama(Mangen) Puja'', Kirant Rai Yayokkha, Kathmandu, Nepal
Kiranti community has rich cultural rituals. Some are well preserved from the earliest time while some others are dying and some are already dead. The community had a vast store of chham 'songs' some of which are extinct i.e. Rungpuwachham,Hakparechham, Yari/hiyo/hiyarichham, Saima/sahimachham, but some are still preserved viz. Sakelachham, Dolokupmachham, Risiya/risiwa, Hopmachham which are sung for different purposes on specific occasions. This paper focuses on an endangered melody known as Hopmachham which is extinct in several other Kiranti languages e.g. Bantawa, Chamling, Chintang. Hopmachham is a song which is sung by members of the Puma Rai community. This song narrates the origin and development of the earth and man. To prepare this paper, audio-video data of the Chintang Puma Documentation Project has been used. The data are from both the ritual texts as well as from everyday conversation, and it should be noted that the language of a ritual text and that of an everyday conversation differ.
Hopmachham is a great song based on Kiranti scriptural music. Etymologically, it is made up of two words hopma 'drink' and chham 'song': a drinking song or more accurately a song that makes you drunk with its charm. In other words, listening to this song one is drugged and enchanted with its magical properties. In order to sing this song, the knowledge of Kiranti oral tradition (Mundhum) is necessary. According to the Kiranti belief, not anybody can sing the song even if he knows it; only the person who has gained the knowledge to sing it in his dream and has not learned it, can sing it.
Ordinary song, on the other hand, is a part of living language, which is also found in many Kiranti languages. Puma Rais sing many kinds of ordinary songs on various occasions i.e. in festivals, at works, on the way etc. The ordinary songs are easier to understand than the cultural songs such as Hopmachham. The most popular ordinary song in Rai community is 'Sakela song', which is sung on the occasion of the greatest Kirati festival 'Sakela/Sakenwa/Tosi'. The Puma Rai community celebrates Sakela as Phagu and they called the song as 'Phagu chham'. The ordinary songs express the real experiences to their life and the world. Especially, the ordinary songs are sung to express love, humanity, affection, jokes, awakenings, loneliness, sorrow etc. Almost all ordinary songs are shorter and easier to sing and understand. It can be sung either mono or duet. Ordinary songs have not any specific time and place to sing. Various types of ordinary songs recorded by Chintang Puma Documentation Program are used to prepare this paper.
B. Language, Literature and Songs
Puma is an endangered language, which is spoken in the hilly regions of eastern Nepal. The total speakers of this language is only 4310 according to the national census, 2001. The speakers are from only a few villages of Khotang and Udayapur districts. The well spoken areas of the language are Diplung, Mauwabote, Devisthan, Pauwasera VDCs of Khotang district and a few villages such as Siddipur, Chaudandi, Beltar and Basaha of Udayapur district. Due to the migration, interlanguage marriage, lack of education in mother tounge and lack of preservation, the speakers of this language are decreasing day by day. Even the speakers from the generation of 60 are using Nepali language in their daily conversation.
There is no much literature in Puma. Only oral tradition of the literature are found. The speakers use it traditionally and only for the cultural fuctions. They use the literature of their laguage to say myths, folktales and sing some songs only.
There were many traditional/cultural songs in the past such as Rungpuwachham, Hakparechham, Yari/hiyo/hiyarichham, Saima/sahimachham, Hopmachham, Dolokupmachham, Risiya/risiwa. Most of them are exticnt. The singers of such great cultural songs are very hard to find. These songs are being extinct because they do not have written forms, they are sung only on specific occasions and they can be sung only by those shamans who have gained the knowledge to sing them in the dream by the grace of god. Hopmachham is only one traditioanl/cultural as well ritual song still found in Puma Rai community and thanks to Chintang Puma Documentaion Project which has audio-video recorded it.
The young literate people of the Puma community are have started creating literature in the Puma language, which is mostly songs, short poems, gazels, short stories etc.
C. Literal contents in Hompachham and Ordinary songs
1) Hopmacham:-
Hopmachham is song in ritual language which is different from ordinary songs not only in content but also in language. Seven shamans singing Hopachham were audio-video recorded by CPDP. Most singers are above 60 and out of the seven recordings one is a general talk on hopmachham delevered by Sain Dhoj Rai(75) of Mauwabote. According to him, hopmachham is a great tradition to song which is sung in various ceremonies or functions.
a.i)
chetkuma cha - it -a -bo ya pasmi chewʌr ya biha
daughter child - give -PST -GEN or rice.feeding hair.cutting or marriage
karje -do khamʌ kha- mʌ- bud -a -kina kha- mʌ- bud -a -kina
ceremony -GEN.LOC FS ANTIP- 3pS/A- call -IMP -PTCL ANTIP- 3pS/A- call -IMP –PTCL
(Call us in the ceremony of rice feeding, hair cutting or in marriage,..) (hopmacham_02.09)
a.ii)
jʌmma hopmacham mʌ- mu -a hopmacham mʌ- mu -a
all a.cultural.great.song 3pS/A- do -PST a.cultural.great.song 3pS/A- do –PST
(...all they sang hopmachham.)(hopmacham_02.10)
Man Bahadur Rai(66), a resident of Diplung-8, was only one who sings hopmachham while dancing the Phagu. By dancing on the beatings of drum and cymbal, in this song, he has breifly narrated the origin of mankind and the world. It is a great old tradition that forms a bond between man and god.
b)
haŋcha kap -ma maŋcha kap -ma loŋli -yaŋ
human make.pair –INF goddess make.pair -INF good.function –IPFV
(It is good to make a bond between human with the goddess.) (hopma_dance.003)
In the rest five recordings done by CPDP, hopmachham songs are sung by shamans or ritual periests above 65. Hopmacham_01 by Kamal Bahadur Rai(71) of Mauwabote-3, hopmacham_03 by Man Bahadur Rai(78) of Mauwabote-2, hopmacham_04 by Lal Dhan Rai(76) of Diplung-7, hopmacham_05 by Guman Sing Rai(73) of Diplung-7 and hopmacham_06 by Dal Bahadur Rai(83) of Diplung-6. While Guman Sing Rai and Dal Bahadur Rai are reknowened shamans, others are ritual priests called 'ngapong'. All of them have sung the hopmachham to explain the origin of the Gods/goddesses, earth, sky and everything existing in this world from the very earliest time. They have narrated the happenings in this world from the time of Sumnima and Paruhang(the greatest creators according to the Mundhum mythology). All of them said that it would take at least seven days without a break to sing Hopmachham completely because the song deals with the origin and history of not only the mankind but of the whole universe.
c.i)
aseyu -doŋkoŋ nam - yuŋŋ -a -kina nawari suntumri - lam
very.begening -GEN.ABLT sun - stay -PST -PTCP ancestral.way ancestral.way – path
( Through the ancient, time-honoured path of the elders ...)(hopmacham_01.022.a)
c.ii)
decha niki doŋdum mu -ma khuwa mu -ma namyuŋ -a -ku -e
how CONN ancestral.talk do -INF ancestral.talk do -INF to.exist -PST -EMPH -TEK.GEN
(how to talk on the ancestral talk for the first existence.... )(hopmacham_03.03)
c.iii)
hʌi busuyu -i busu -i -lo depa - lis -a nʌmma - lis -a
EXCLA long.time.ago -EMPH long.time.ago -EMPH -SIM what - become -PST what - become –PST
(What was happened in the very begening....)(hopmacham_04.01)
c.iv)
hai sari mun -ma henkhama mun -ma mamun -sa -ben
EMPH desease originate -INF earth originate -INF to.originate -SIM -NMLZ
(When the desease and the earth was originating.....)(hopmacham_05.005.b)
c.v)
sumnima -i duŋ -iŋkʌŋ paruhang -bo duŋ -iŋkʌŋ namyuŋ -moho namyuŋ -a -o
a_goddess -PST age -DOWN.ABLT a_god -GEN age -DOWN.ABLT to.exist -PTCL to.exist-PST –VOC
(It existed/originated in the time of Sumnima and Paruhang.) (hopmacham_06.04)
Hopmachham can also be sung as ritual journey. There are many ritual functions in Puma Rai community performed by shamans or priests through ritual journey. In the recording hopmacham_01, Kamal Bahadur Rai goes on a ritual journey while singing hopmachham. The singer walks along the river from the place where he starts his singing, then travels upto Chatara Wadera, which is accepted as the holy place in Mundhum philosophy. Then the singer takes a boat upto there, where Arun, Tamor and Sunkoshi rivers meet together. After visiting 'Chatara/Wadera', the singers returns at the same place from where he started singing the song. But he does not forget to explain that all these incidents happen through the permission of the God Paruhang. He prays to raise the soul and luck of every listners, singers as well as of the forthcoming generations.
d)
uŋ -ko rʌŋri sikhi rʌŋri hoŋcha rʌŋri chiya man- dha man- dha onei
1sPOSS -GEN luck pure luck human luck life.expectancy IMP.NEG- fall IMP.NEG- fall VOC
(my good luck, pure luck, human luck, may the life span not be diminished!) (hopmacham_01.243)16:48
In hopmacham_04, Lal Dhan Rai expressed his view on how to live and let others to live in this world. He appeals to live happily following and preserving the elders' customs and traditions.
e.i)
has -i mu -so khel -i mu -so lappa mu -so sili mu -so namyuŋ -in -ne
laugh -EMPH do -SIM game -EMPH do -SIM competition.in.dance do -SIM dancing.style do -SIM to.exist -1ns -PURP
(Lets live laughing, playing, and dancing.) (hopmacham_04.20.a)
e.ii)
papa riti namyuŋŋ -yaŋ -so namyuŋŋ -i -ne
father custom be.spread -IPFV -SIM be.spread -1/2p –PURP
(Lets spread the long lasting customs of our fore-father.)
(hopmacham_04.23)
Guman Sing Rai, in hopmacham_05, narrates termite was the first living being in this world and what was its role to build earth in the pre-historic age. The Kirati mythology Mundhum is varifeid by this hopmachham.
f)
hai ma henkhama mun -ma mamun -a -o boboyoŋma
EMPH FILLER the.earth originate -INF to.originate -PST -VOC termite
(The termite was the origin of the earth.)(hopmacham_05.011)
No femle singer of Hopmacham was found, although there are some female shamans. Most Puma people can not understand the semantic meaning of hopmachham. Only the persons who sing it and only the persons from old generation, who keep interest in it, understand the semantic meaning of hopmachham. Every line of hopmachham keeps equal importance in mythologial or cultural varies. There are not any specific criteria for the lines and stanza in hopmachham. It is known as song but done as a narrative story.
2) Ordinary songs:- Many ordinary songs found in Puma community sung by every gender and evey age group. There are a few young Puma people who have started to write songs to sing on various occasions, specially in two festivals Phagu dance and Tihar(Deepawali). Chintang Puma Documentation Project could record some such Puma ordinary songs. They are 26 in number and can be sung for the various purposes. A few songs, which have their base in the folk-songs, have made their appearance in local magazines. These songs are easy to understand in comparison to the ritual songs such as Hopmachham..
According to the singing place, season or time, ordinary songs can be devided as follows:
A. Festivals: There are many festivals celebrated in Puma Rai community. Some of them are celebrated nationally such as Tihar(Deepawali). Some of them are celebrated only in Kirat Rai community such as Sakenwa/Sakela or Phagu. Here we discuss only two festivals in which ordinary songs are sung.
Phagu:- Phagu is a great Puma festival, which is celebrated as Sakela/Sakewa/Toshi in other Rai group once a year at the month of Baisakh of Bikram Sambat calander. On this occasion, Puma people dance and sing in groups. They sing in their own language as well as in Nepali. Most Phagu songs which were recorded by CPDP, apeal the people to follow and preserve their culture i.e. the example numbers g) and h). Phagu songs can express love, affection and friendship too, i. e. Example number I). Phagu songs have couplets and only the second line in the couplet marks the theme of the poem, as is shown in g.ii), h.ii) and i.ii).
g.i)
wahut -i ŋasa kupp -i -ne soi soila ho soi soila
rivulet -DOWN.LOC fish pick.up -1ns -HORT VOC – VOC EXCLA VOC – VOC
(soi soila, let's catch fish in the rivulet)( phagu_song_01.04) LR(38/F) & DMR(40/F)
g.ii)
ke puma jʌmma tupp -i -ne soi soila ho soi soila
1pi Puma total meet -1ns -HORT VOC – VOC EXCLA VOC – VOC
(soi soila let's meet all Puma) (phagu_song_01.06) -LR(38/F) & DMR(40/F)
h.i)
bela -na bokwa selele selele
a_plant -FOC leaf IDEOPH IDEOPH
(The sound of the sinkauli leaves ''as the wind
blew them'') (pum_song_07.01) MR, DuR,DR,DeR
h.ii)
phagu lak mu -e -ne pelele pelele
nature.worship candi.dance do -1/2p -OPT queue.of.people queue.of.people
(Let us celebrate the Phagu dance in a row.) (pum_song_07.02.a) MR, DuR,DR,DeR
I.i)
dabe -na bit -ma chimarʌŋ chin -ma -kina
a.large.deadly.knife -EMPH put.on -INF waist.band tighten -INF –PTCL
( To put Khukuri on big waist belt, ) (pum_song_19.016) DMR(69/M)
I.ii)
ŋa -na ben -oŋ khʌnna sin -a -kina soi – soi
1s -EMPH come.level -1sS/P.PST 2s know -PST -PTCL VOC – VOC
( I came here seeing just you.) (pum_song_19.017) DMR(69/M)
Tihar :- Puma people also celebrate the Tihar as a great natioanl festival once in a year. The young people organize Deusi team (a group of people who goes door to door singing and dancing) at every villages. They sing mostly in Nepali language and sometimes in their own language. Four Tihar songs were found audio recorded ten years before. Those are the first documented songs in the Puma language by Puma themselves. CPDP has three recordings of Puma songs, which are sung in Tihar. One gives information about the Tihar, the rest two greets and bids farewell.
j.i)
tihar ta -yaŋ ʌkdoŋdo
tihar come -IPFV one - year -GEN.LOC
(Tihar comes once a year,) (pum_song_09.01 BR-26/F)
k.ii)
buŋwa bet -yaŋ khim - cheu -do
flower bloom -IPFV house - side -GEN.LOC
(flower blooms near the house) (pum_song_09.03) BR-26/F
k.i)
doŋbuŋ saskritik klʌb -bo sewa sewa jhara –lai
a_club cultural club -GEN greeting greeting all -DAT
(Dongbung cultural club greets to everyone.) (pum_song_12.01-BBR/M)
k.ii)
sarʌŋgi oŋ mandola -bo sewa sewa jhara -lai jhara –lai
a_musical.instrument CONN a_drum -GEN greeting greeting all -DAT all -DAT
(Greetings with Sarangi and Madal to everyone!) ((pum_song_12.03-BBR/M)
l.i)
mama papa -ci -o ta -a -nin -ka deusi khipd -yaŋ -so
mother father -ns -VOC come -PST -1ns -e singing-dancing play -IPFV –CVB
(Oh! elders! We came playing Deusi) (pum_song_11.01-NR/M/25)
l.ii)
aipʌdoŋ -lai puks -i -ka -ne sewa mu -yaŋ –so
this.year -DAT go -3P -e -HORT salute do -IPFV –CVB
(Let us go, for this year greeting to you.) (pum_song_11.03-NR/M/25)
B. Anytime:- There are many ordinary songs which can be sung anytime and in any places. Most of these are documented as folk songs, which apeal on the awakening of the people, show expectation towards the clan brothers or other relatives beyond the native land, express love, loneliness and romance. Most of the Tihar and Phagu songs are also related with similar themes. In the following example, the singer Prem Dhoj Rai (54/M) makes an appeal to the Pume people to wake up.
m.i)
puma -ci -o hen -na ke cha khups -i -ne
Sub-ethnic_group -ns -VOC now -EMPH 1pi ADD wake.up -1/2p –PURP
(Now, let's wake up all of us Pumas.) (pum_song_13.01)
m.ii)
henkhama khaŋ -so khaŋ -so puks -i -ne
the.earth see -SIM see -SIM go -1/2p –PURP
(Seeing the earth, let's go ahead.) (pum_song_13.02)
Mina Rai(30/F) and Kumari Rai(28/F) have expressed their love for the brother who is going abroad to earn money. It shows the real socio-economic culture of the community. The following is the first stanza of the song sung by them.
n.i)
daju khʌnna tʌ - puŋ-yaŋ bidesh
elder.brother 2s PTCL - go -IPFV aboard
(Brother, you going far places,) (pum_song_17.01)
n.ii)
ŋa na yuŋ -ŋa kabo -ŋe ka- asa
1s PTCL stay -1sS/P.NPST 2sPOSS -EMPH 2sPOSS- hope
(I wait you expecting you ever.) (pum_song_17.03)
There are some songs expressed love and loneliness in the absence of lover or spouse. Sakunta Rai(29/F) has expressed her affectional feelings through sakun_song_01.
o.i)
uŋ - minma hu - hot -yaŋ khʌnna -lai -ŋa lam -so
1sPOSS - heart move.round - TEL -IPFV 2s -DAT -EMPH search –CVB
(My heart is moving around looking for you, ) (sakun_song_01.01)
o.ii)
demkha yuŋ-ma khap -so khap -so demkha dha -ma si -so
when stay -INF weep -CVB weep -CVB when fall -INF die –CVB
(Sometimes to live crying and sometimes getting fall as die.) (sakun_song_01.02)
There are also romantic songs sung in 'mono' and 'duet' in ordinary language in Puma. Romantically mono songs are pum_song_15, pum_song_16, pum_song_20 and so on. In pum_dohori_01 and pum_dohori_02, Mitra Man Rai(71/M) and Padam Maya Rai(68/F) sang the duet song romantically. It is interesting that Mitra Man Rai and Padam Maya Rai are husband and wife in real life. These kinds of songs show humor, recreation and intense.
p.i)
chʌmkʌne bhoʈo chʌmmʌmʌ
colourful vest IDEOPH
(Colourful vest is Chhammama.) (pum_dohori_01.05) -MMR
p.ii)
he kanchi -o cham mu -ci -ne ammʌmʌ
VOC last.fem.sibiling -VOC song do -d -HORT IDEOPH
(Oh! My dear, let's sing a great song.) (pum_dohori_01.05) -MMR
q.i)
khʌnna -a nicce -ŋa tʌ- mu -u -ku khʌnna -a maya –ŋa
2s -ERG really -EMPH 2- do -3P -NMLZ 2s -ERG love –EMPH
(Do you really love to me?.) (pum_dohori_01.05) -PMR
q.ii)
atdi -ŋa ŋa –lai khʌnna -a maya tʌ- mu -oŋ nʌŋ nalo tupd -i nʌŋ
the.last.day -EMPH 1s-DAT 2s-ERG love 2-do -1sS/P.PST PTCL COND understand -3P PTCL
(If you loved me before, understand yourself.) (pum_dohori_01.05) -PMR
D. Short Comparative analyses of Hopmachham and Ordinary songs
1. History
The elder people who know a little about hopmachham, beleive that hopmachham is a very old tradition of singing in Kiranti communities. People assume that the origin of this song is as old as the Kiranti cultures and Mundhum/Mundum philosophy. But ordinary songs are modified form of previous language and songs as hopmachham.
2. Historical/cultural importances
Hopmachham is precious because it contains pre-historic knowledge about mankind and universe and because it is related to the Mundhum/Mundum ideology and kirati cultures. Ordinary songs, on the other hand, are related to everyday life and carry modern trend in development of literature of Puma language.
3. Singers
The singers of Hopmachham are almost above of 60, They are shamans who have gined knowledge to sing it in their dream by the grace of god. Only these shamans can sing it. But the singers of ordinary songs are from all kinds of age group who know the Puma language. Numerically, ordinary songs are sung by young generations.
4. Singing time and place
There is specific time and place to sing Hopmachham, but there is no the limitation of time and place to sing ordinary songs.
5. Begginning and ending 'antaraa'
The starting line of each stanza in Hopmachham is mostly started with a vocative word, ordinary song has no such speciality.
6. Use of songs
The using purpose of hopmachham is specially to explain the origin of the world to the listners. It is an oral culture. Ordinary songs can be sung on any occasion such as festivals, works, etc.
7. Restrictions in singing song
Only shamans who have gained the knowledge to sing it in their dream can sing Hopmachham It is therefore, restricted. But there is no such restriction to sing an ordinary song: anyone can sing it.
8. Status/ Influences
Hopmachham is highly endangered because it is sung by only the elderly shamans of 70 and because they are allowed to sing by their god. After the death of these shamans it might be extinct as the new genereation is not learning the Puma language let alone learn shamanism. In comparison to Hopmacham, ordinary songs is in better position, that is, they do not seem to be in the danger of being extinct.
E. Some special Features of Hopmachham and Ordinary songs
Special features of Hopamachham and ordinary songs are given below in points.
Homachham4
• Hopmachham is learnt in dream.
• Only a few singers of Hopmachham are left in Puma Rai community.
• It is a verbal and ritual journey.
• Hopmachham and mundum are strongly related.
• It explains the origin or creation of the world.
• Queries and answers between two parties (duet)
• It is sung both in pleasure and tragedy.
• It is sung at work and on cultural rites.
• It's the origin of many kinds of Kiranti songs.
• It's a historical oral document.
• It is related to the real life and living style.
• It represents endangered culture.
Ordinary songs
· Ordinary songs are learnt in real life through practice.
· The singers of ordinary songs are increasing day by day in Puma Rai community.
· Ordinary songs are influenced by mordernisation in the songs of other languages.
· Ordinary songs and a small part of living of the people are related.
· Can sung every occasion and everywhere.
· Found in individual writing tradition but singing is found in mono, duet or group.
· Some documented by the native speakers are found.
F. Summary and Conclusion
Hopmachham and chham are etymalogically looks not so different. But Hopmachham is not a ordinary song, . It is a great storage of cultural heritage in Puma Rai community. It explains all the history of origin relating to living being to human performances such as language, cultures etc. Hopmachham is very much endangered becasue there are many restrictions to sing this song. Only a few old people who are alive can sing it. Proper documentation and preservation of such a great mythological and historical wealth is, therefore, absolutely necessary. Ordinary songs are not really related with hopmachham in these days but it was a small part of hopmachham in the past. It can be sung in everytime and everywhere to express every human feelings and emotions. It is growing day by day to sing and document by same community members.
References
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Rai, Shree Kumar, 2007, Vol, 26 Nipsung. PP.11-12. ''Kirant Puma Raiharuma Mongchama(Mangen) Puja'', Kirant Rai Yayokkha, Kathmandu, Nepal
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